The Role of a CaMKII/PKA-Protein Degradation-GluR2 Pathway in the Control of Memory Updating Following Retrieval

Reconsolidation is thought to be a process whereby consolidated memories can be modified following retrieval. However, very little is known about the molecular mechanisms that regulate this reconsolidation process. In the present series of experiments we tested if memories destabilize or become labile following retrieval through a specific signaling pathway. We found that retrieval of a contextual fear memory differentially increased proteasome activity in the amygdala and hippocampus and resulted in unique changes in AMPA receptor subunit expression in these brain regions. These changes were dependent on CaMKII activity, which was required for increases in Rpt6-S120 phosphorylation, proteasome activity and GluR2/3 in the amygdala and hippocampus. Interestingly, CaMKII-mediated protein degradation in the amygdala was critical for changes in proteasome activity and AMPA receptor subunit expression in the hippocampus, suggesting that protein degradation in the amygdala is critical for the reconsolidation of a contextual fear memory in the hippocampus. Additionally, we found that auditory fear memories destabilize in the amygdala but reconsolidate in both the amygdala and hippocampus following retrieval, suggesting that the amygdala and hippocampus may interact to reconsolidate memories that are normally hippocampus-independent. Finally, we found that contextual information, but not prediction error, was the new information present at retrieval that controlled the destabilization and reconsolidation of a retrieved auditory fear memory. Collectively, these results suggest that fear memories undergo systems reconsolidation following retrieval where they destabilize through a specific cellular pathway mediated by CaMKII in the amygdala, and that contextual information may be the new information present at retrieval that controls the reconsolidation-dependent updating of fear memories in the amygdala

Some Factors Involved In Failure At Jack Yates High School Houston, Texas

A seemingly unwarranted number of failures over a period of years has caused much concern among leading educators. Our democratic form of government tends to develop growth and wholesome life, not from a saturated condition of failure, hat from sound and meaningful educations. standards and policies which must be transferred to all. Varied studies are being made to approach a definite and workable to eliminate educational usages which aid in destroying pupil personalities. If the American ideal of education for *all the children of all the people is ever going to be no re than empty words, ways must be found to fit the school to the needs of the slow learners as effectively as to the more rapid learners When educators first began to realize that something could be done to alleviate this condition, they began pointing out individual cases for such failure. However, in this investigation certain factors causing failure of pupils at Jack Yates High School. Houston, Teres, from September 1943 to June 1946 will be represented. Hot how many pupils failed, but why pupils failed is certainly of more pertinent value. It is hoped that the information gathered will serve to eliminate some of the pitfalls which have victimized previous students

Assessment of Waste Battery Management in Peri-Urban Settlement, Case Study of Kigamboni/ Temeke District

This study assessed the Waste Batteries Management in Peri-Urban Settlement, Case study Kigamboni/Temeke District. Specifically the study was done at Kisalawe II ward, Tumaini and Kichangani Mtaa jurisdiction area. A total of 57 respondents from Tumaini and Kichangani Mtaa as well as officials from Government authorities were involved. Data were collected using direct observation, interview and questionnaires among household producing waste batteries and focus group discussion to government officials. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Findings indicates that there is Dry cell waste batteries (455 Pc/HH/3yrs), Cell Phone waste batteries (2.1Pc/HH/3yrs) and Lead acid waste Batteries (2.2Pc/HH/3Yrs). Also there is no treatment facility for Dry cell waste batteries and cell Phone waste batteries and only two recyling indutry for Lead acid waste batteries counrty wise. Furthermore, the study revealed that Dry cell and Cell phone waste batteries are mixed up with other domestic waste while the Lead acid batteries are collected to lead acid recycling facilty. The use of rechargeable batteries minmizes the waste batteries generation, also increased investment on Waste Battery Recycling Industries reduces the pollutant burden to environment. Lastly, awarenes raising among the users on the hazardousness and safe handling of waste batteries should be emphasised to control environmental pollution

Time-Dependent Expression of Arc and Zif268 after Acquisition of Fear Conditioning

Memory consolidation requires transcription and translation of new protein. Arc, an effector immediate early gene, and zif268, a regulatory transcription factor, have been implicated in synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory. This study explored the temporal expression profiles of these proteins in the rat hippocampus following fear conditioning. We observed a time-dependent increase of Arc protein in the dorsal hippocampus 30-to-90-minute post training, returning to basal levels at 4 h. Zif268 protein levels, however, gradually increased at 30-minute post training before peaking in expression at 60 minute. The timing of hippocampal Arc and zif268 expression coincides with the critical period for protein synthesis-dependent memory consolidation following fear conditioning. However, the expression of Arc protein appears to be driven by context exploration, whereas, zif268 expression may be more specifically related to associative learning. These findings suggest that altered Arc and zif268 expression are related to neural plasticity during the formation of fear memory

Design and rationale of a 16-week adjunctive randomized placebo-controlled trial of mitochondrial agents for the treatment of bipolar depression

Objective: Bipolar disorder places a significant burden on individuals, caregivers and family, and the broader community. Current treatments are believed to be more effective against manic symptoms, leaving a shortfall in recovery during the depressive phase of the illness. The current study draws on recent evidence suggesting that, in addition to increased oxidative load, alterations in mitochondrial function occur in bipolar disorder. Methods: This 16-week study aims to explore the potential benefits of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) alone or in combination (CT) with selected nutraceuticals believed to enhance mitochondrial function. The study includes adults diagnosed with bipolar disorder currently experiencing an episode of depression. Participants are asked to take NAC, CT, or placebo in addition to any usual treatments. A post-discontinuation visit is conducted 4 weeks following the treatment phase. Results: The primary outcome of the study will be mean change on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale. Secondary outcomes include functioning, substance use, mania ratings, and quality of life. Blood samples will be collected at baseline and week 16 to explore biochemical alterations following treatment. Conclusion: This study may provide a novel adjunctive treatment for bipolar depression. Analysis of biological samples may assist in understanding the therapeutic benefits and the underlying etiology of bipolar depression

Lenin on the Agrarian and Peasant Questions

Lenin attached great importance to the processes of agricultural and rural development. This is understandable in view of the fact that tsarist Russia where he prepared a socialist revolution had all the characteristics of an agrarian peasant country. Thus it was in Russia that many theories came into being which were contrary to the Marxist interpretations of historical evolution. Using the example of agriculture and peasantry, their authors tried to prove Marxist analysis wrong. They insisted that the special features of agriculture call for different laws of development (influence of natural factors, work with living matter, land as a special means of production, etc.). Thus defined, the agrarian question raised by bourgeois and revisionist economists did not exist for Lenin. For this sphere too is penetrated by capitalism, which leads to concentration, differentiation and social contrasts. One can only speak of different forms of its emergence in agriculture and industry, while the basic features remain the same. There are numerous works in which Lenin argued with the Populists and other champions of the agrarian question. The second group of questions which Lenin was concerned with derives from attempts to determine the attitude of the proletariat towards the peasants. Like Engels and Kautsky before him, he too was in favour of a firm alliance with small and medium farmers in the preparation for and realization of the revolution and, after its victory, for a gradual inclusion of the peasants in large-scale socialist agriculture on the principle of voluntary agreement and financial interest. The third group of questions studied by Lenin refers to the systems of co- -operation and association. In voluntary large-scale association of small producers Lenin saw the only way for agricultural development in the conditions of pettv ownership. But this involved an indispensable need for the development of industry which would provide agriculture with the necessary means

Activity Dependent Protein Degradation Is Critical for the Formation and Stability of Fear Memory in the Amygdala

Protein degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome system [UPS] plays a critical role in some forms of synaptic plasticity. However, its role in memory formation in the amygdala, a site critical for the formation of fear memories, currently remains unknown. Here we provide the first evidence that protein degradation through the UPS is critically engaged at amygdala synapses during memory formation and retrieval. Fear conditioning results in NMDA-dependent increases in degradation-specific polyubiquitination in the amygdala, targeting proteins involved in translational control and synaptic structure and blocking the degradation of these proteins significantly impairs long-term memory. Furthermore, retrieval of fear memory results in a second wave of NMDA-dependent polyubiquitination that targets proteins involved in translational silencing and synaptic structure and is critical for memory updating following recall. These results indicate that UPS-mediated protein degradation is a major regulator of synaptic plasticity necessary for the formation and stability of long-term memories at amygdala synapses

Perturbed proteostasis in autism spectrum disorders

Dynamic changes in synaptic strength rely on de novo protein synthesis and protein degradation by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Disruption of either of these cellular processes will result in significant impairments in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Mutations in several genes encoding regulators of mRNA translation and members of the UPS have been associated with an increased risk for the development of autism spectrum disorders. It is possible that these mutations result in a similar imbalance in protein homeostasis (proteostasis) at the synapse. This review will summarize recent work investigating the role of the UPS in synaptic plasticity at glutamatergic synapses, and propose that dysfunctional proteostasis is a common consequence of several genetic mutations linked to autism spectrum disorders. [Image: see text] Dynamic changes in synaptic strength rely on de novo protein synthesis and protein degradation by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Disruption of either of these cellular processes will result in significant impairments in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Mutations in several genes encoding regulators of mRNA translation (i.e. FMR1) and protein degradation (i.e. UBE3A) have been associated with an increased risk for autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability (ASD/ID). These mutations similarly disrupt protein homeostasis (proteostasis). Compensatory changes that reset the rate of proteostasis may contribute to the neurological symptoms of ASD/ID. This review summarizes recent work investigating the role of the UPS in synaptic plasticity at glutamatergic synapses, and proposes that dysfunctional proteostasis is a common consequence of several genetic mutations linked to ASD. This article is part of a mini review series: “Synaptic Function and Dysfunction in Brain Diseases”

AVONET: morphological, ecological and geographical data for all birds

Functional traits offer a rich quantitative framework for developing and testing theories in evolutionary biology, ecology and ecosystem science. However, the potential of functional traits to drive theoretical advances and refine models of global change can only be fully realised when species‐level information is complete. Here we present the AVONET dataset containing comprehensive functional trait data for all birds, including six ecological variables, 11 continuous morphological traits, and information on range size and location. Raw morphological measurements are presented from 90,020 individuals of 11,009 extant bird species sampled from 181 countries. These data are also summarised as species averages in three taxonomic formats, allowing integration with a global phylogeny, geographical range maps, IUCN Red List data and the eBird citizen science database. The AVONET dataset provides the most detailed picture of continuous trait variation for any major radiation of organisms, offering a global template for testing hypotheses and exploring the evolutionary origins, structure and functioning of biodiversity