Continence

Continence is self-restraint and self- control especially temperance, sexual behavior and the body excreta (ability to control one’s bowel and bladder).Continence is an acquired behavior gained by learning and training. Continence is a nerve-muscle action. An alert healthy nervous system (NS) and intact reactive muscles are the tools for expressing continence.To gain continence, is how to control and train your sympathetic nervous system (NS). Most sympathetic nerve endings secrete nor-epinephrine (NE). NE excites most of the visceral structures. The sympathetic NS mobilizes the body’s systems during confronting a situation “Fight or flight.â€We gain progressively rising up sympathetic tone from everyday life stress, teaching, and experience. Stimulation of the sympathetic NS, leads to rise in blood pressure. It dilates the pupil of the eye. It excites the liver to release glucose, and increases the rate of metabolism of essentially all the cells of the body “fight or flightâ€. The integrative centers of the brain can acquire by learning, and training how to master, synchronize, and harmonize different responses according to social circumstances. Therefore, it is how to control the sympathetic NS is the way to gain continence.After learning, sympathetic stimulation leads to: holding back (continence) or fight or flightâ€. If the situation is over –whelming, the result is sympathetic failure and subsequent incontinence.Incontinence results from fault in the sympathetic NS, CNS and/or the target organ.Therefore, correcting the pathology of body’s excreta incontinence is by correcting the sympathetic nerves and their neurotransmitters medically or treating the target organs (IUS & IAS) surgically

FEKALNA INKONTINENCIJA Nova koncepcija: Uloga unutarnjeg analnog sfinktera pri defekaciji i fekalnoj inkontinenciji

Introduction. Fecal incontinence is involuntary escape of stool, mucus and/or flatus.Its causes are: anal sphincter damage (childbirth trauma, surgical trauma.); constipation; diarrhea; rectocele; rectal prolapse and rarely congenital causes. Fecal material entering the rectum is evacuated by defecation during which: 1. The smooth muscles of the distal colon and rectum contract, propelling the feces into the anal canal; 2.The anal sphincter relaxes allowing defecation to occur. We put forward a recent concept on the patho-physiology of defecation.The mechanism of defecation has two stages: first stage: (in early childhood) before training; second stage is after training. The mother starts to teach her child how to control himself. This is gained by maintaining high alpha sympathetic tone at the internal anal sphincter (IAS) keeping it closed all the time till appropriate place and time are available. Wherever appropriate place is available and there is a desire, six neuromuscular actions will occur: 1) the person will lower the acquired high alpha sympathetic tone at the IAS relaxing it opening the anal canal; 2) through the voluntary nervous system (NS) he will widen the ano-rectal angle to bring the anal canal and the rectum on one axis. This is done through the pelvic floor muscles; 3) through, voluntary NS he will also relax the external anal sphincter (EAS); then synergistic actions between the voluntary and autonomic nervous system occur; 4) the abdominal and diaphragmatic muscles contract, increasing the intra- abdominal pressure and forcing the feces through the anal canal (via the voluntary NS); 5) the smooth muscles of the distal colon and rectum contract, propelling the feces into the anal canal (through the autonomic NS); 6) followed by sequential contractions of the three parts of the EAS (deep then superficial and then the subcutaneous parts) that will squeeze the anal canal propelling any residual contents. Objectives. Imaging of the anal canal by 3-dimension ultrasound (3DUS) in normal women and women suffering from fecal incontinence and from rectocele, to compare the state of the IAS and EAS. Methods. 40 patients with FI were assessed clinically and by imaging using 3DUS, and also 10 normal women not suffering from fecal incontinence (FI) as a control. Results. The anal canal is closed in normal women, with intact IAS. In women suffering from FI the anal canal is wide and open with torn IAS. Conclusion. The internal anal sphincter (IAS) is a collageno-muscular tissue cylinder that surrounds the anal canal innervated by alpha-sympathetic nerve supply from the hypogastric nerves. It is surrounded in its lower part by the EAS which is a striated muscle innervated by the pudendal nerve. Its damage during childbirth causes fecal incontinence, and mending its torn wall restores fecal continence.Uvod. Fekalna inkontinencija (insuficijencija stolice) znači nevoljno bježanje stolice, sluzi i/ili vjetrova. Uzroci su: oštećenje sfinktera (pri rađanju djeteta, kirurška trauma), zatvor stolice, proljev; rektokela, ispadanje rektuma, rijetko prirođeno ispadanje. Stolica ulazi u završno crijevo te iz njega izlazi na sljedeći način: 1. Glatki mišići donjeg i završnog dijela debelog crijeva se stežu, potiskujući feces u analni kanal; 2. Analni sfinkter olabavi i omogući da uslijedi defekacija. Predstavljamo svježe shvaćanje o patofiziologiji defekacije. Mehanizam ima dva razdobkja: prvo razdoblje je rano djetinstvo, bez poduke; drugo razdoblje je nakon poduke. Majka podučava svoje dijete kako se kontrolirati. To se postiže visokim alfa simpatičkim tonusom unutarnjeg analnog sfinktera, držeći ga zatvorenim sve dok se ne ukaže odgovarajuće mjesto i vrijeme. Kad se nađe odgovarajuće mjesto, i ako postoji želja, počinje šest sinergističkih neuromuskularnih aktivnosti: 1) osoba će sniziti postojeći visoki alfa simpatički tonus unutarnjeg analnoga sfinktera i time otvoriti analni kanal; 2) pomoću voljnog živčanog sustava smanjit će ano-rektalni kut i dovesti ih u istu osovinu; to postiže pomoću mišića dna zdjelice: 3) voljnim živčanim sustavom također će omlohaviti vanjski analni sfinkter; tada nastupa sinergistična djelatnost voljnog i autonomnog živčevlja; 4) trbušni i dijafragmalni mišići se stežu, povećavaju intraabdominalni tlak te potiskuju feces kroz analni kanal; 5) stežu se glatki mišići debelog crijeva i rektuma te potiskuju feces u analni kanal (autonomnim živčevljem); 6) slijede segmentalna stezanja sva tri dijela vanjskog sfinktera (dubokog, površnog pa potkožnog), koja će iz analnog kanala istisnuti sve zaostatke. Svrha rada. Trodimenzionalnim ultrazvukom prikazati analni kanal u zdravih žena te u onih koje pate od fekalne inkontinencije i rektokele, usporediti njihov unutrašnji i vanjski analni sfinkter. Metode. Analizirano je klinički i 3DUZ-om 40 pacijentica s fekalnom inkompetencijom i uspoređeno s 10 zdravih žena. Rezultat. Analni kanal je u zdravih žena zatvoren, njihov unutrapnji sfinkter je neoštećen. U žena s fekalnom inkompetencijom analni kanal je širok i otvoren te s razderanim sfinkterom. Zaključak. Unutarnji analni sfinkter je kolageno-mišićno tkivo oblika cilindra koje okružuje analni kanal, inerviran je alfa-simpatičkim živcima iz hipogastričkog pleksusa. Unutarnji sfinkter je okružen donjim dijelom vanjskog analnog sfinktera, koji je građen od prugastog mišićja inerviranog pudendalnim živcem. Njegovo oštećenje tijekom rađanja uzrokuje fekalnu inkontinenciju. Prepravak njegove razderane stijenke uspostavlja fekalnu kontinenciju

KIRURŠKO LIJEČENJE STRES URINARNE INKONTINENCIJE, FEKALNE INKONTINENCIJE I VAGINALNOG PROLAPSA NOVOM OPERACIJOM »URETRO-ANO-VAGINOPLASTIKA«

We put forward a novel concept explaining the mechanism of micturition and the factors that control urinary continence. Also, we describe the mechanism of defecation and the factors that control stool continence and prevent fecal incontinence. A weak internal urethral sphincter (IUS) will not withstand sudden rise of intra-abdominal pressure and urine will leak. The weakness of the IUS is mostly due to traumatic rupture of its wall as a result of the huge vaginal distension that happens during prolonged, difficult and multiple frequent labors. So, surgical correction is by exposing that rupture and mending its walls. Also the marked vaginal distension which occurs in labor will cause lacerations in the internal anal sphincter (IAS) which is intimately related to the posterior vaginal wall. The torn weak IAS will cause fecal incontinence (FI). Exposing the torn IAS and mending the torn walls will restore the sphincter strength and fecal continence. Vaginal prolapse occurs as a result of vaginal wall weakness, redundancy and flabbiness subsequent to its marked stretching of its walls during vaginal deliveries. Overlapping the vaginal flaps both in the anterior and posterior vaginal wall, such repair will strengthen the vaginal walls, as if we put a collagenous mesh but instead this is an autologus collagenous mesh. We innovated an operation called »urethro-ano-vagino-plasty« to surgically treat urinary incontinence, fecal incontinence and and vaginal prolapse. Objectives. To describe this novel operation, and assess its results for a follow up period of 24 months. Methods. 134 patients with SUI and FI were assessed. Urethro-ano-vaginoplasty was done, and the results were assessed immediately and for 24 months follow up. Results. 121 (90.3%) gained urinary and fecal continence and remained continent in the follow up period. Conclusion. The internal anal sphincter (IAS) is a collageno-muscular tissue cylinder that surrounds the anal canal innervated by alpha-sympathetic nerve supply from the hypogastric nerves. It is surrounded in its lower part by the EAS which is a striated muscle innervated by the pudendal nerve. Its damage during childbirth causes fecal incontinence and mending the torn walls restores fecal continence.Predstavljena je nova koncepcija o mehanizmu mokrenja i čimbenicima koji reguliraju mokraćnu kontinenciju. Također, opisan je mehanizam defekacije te čimbenici koji kontroliraju kontinenciju stolice i sprječavaju fekalnu inkontinenciju. Slab unutarnji uretralni sfinkter (IUS) se ne može suprostaviti naglom porastu intraabdominalnog tlaka te će mokraća bježati. Slabost IUS-a je većinom posljedica ozljede njegove stijenke zbog silnog vaginalna širenja koje se zbiva tijekom produljenih, tešlih i učestalih rađanja. Kirurška korekcija se sastoji u nalaženju prsnuća i opskrbi njegove stijenke. Vaginalno širenje tijekom poroda uzrokuje prsnuće unutarnjeg analnog sfinktera (IAS), koji je intimno povezan sa stražnjom vaginalnom stijenkom. Oslabljeni i prsnuti IAS uzrokuje fekalnu inkontinenciju (FI). Prikaz prsnutog IAS-a i šivanje njegovih razderanih stijenki uspostavit će snagu sfinktera i fekalnu kontinenciju. Vaginalni prolaps nastaje kao posljedica slabosti i mlohavosti vaginalne stijenke te njene proširenosti, zbog istezanja tijekom vaginalnog rađanja. Preklapanjem vaginalnih režanja prednje i stražnje stijenke ojačava se stijenka, umjesto umjetne mrežice postavljamo vlastitu autolognu kolagenu mrežicu. Izumjeli smo za korekciju urinarne i fekalne inkontinencije te vaginalna prolapsa novu operaciju i nazcvali je »uretro-ano-vagino-plastika«. Cilj rada je opisati novu operaciju i prosuditi njen uspjeh nakon 24 mjeseca. Metoda. Operirane su 134 bolesnice sa stres urinarnom inkontinencijom i fekalnom inkontinencijom. Rezultati. 121 bolesnica (90,3%) je opet postigla mokraćnu i fekalnu kontinenciju i zadržala ih tijekom praćenja. Zaključak. Unutarnji analni sfinkter je kolegano-mišićni tkivni cilindar, inerviran alfa-simpatičnim živcima iz hipogastričkog pleksusa koji okružuje analni kanal. U donjem dijelu je okružen vanjskim sfinkterom koji je poprečno-prugaste mišićne građe i inerviran ograncima pudendalnog živca. Njegovo oštećenje tijekom rađanja uzrokuje fekalnu inkontinenciju, a šivanje prsnute stijenke uspostavlja fekalnu kontinenciju

PRIKAZ UNUTRAŠNJEG SFINKTERA URETRE I VAGINE U ZDRAVIH ŽENA I OBOLJELIH OD STRES INKONTINENCIJE MOKRAĆE I PROLAPSA VAGINE

Introduction. The internal urethral sphincter (IUS) is a cylinder formation that extends from the urinary bladder neck to the urogenital diaphragm. It is composed of a strong collagen sheet with muscle fibers that intermingle with the collagen in the middle of the cylinder’s thickness. The strong collagen sheet gives the IUS the high wall tension necessary to create the high urethral pressure. The muscle fibers, innervated by alpha sympathetic nerves (T10-L2) are responsible for closure and opening the urethra. Urinary continence depends on the presence of an intact and strong IUS and of an acquired behavior, gained by learning and training in early childhood, how to maintain a high alpha sympathetic tone at the IUS keeping it closed until there is a need. Normal vagina is a cylinder of collageno-elastic-muscular tissues. Its strong collagen sheet is responsible for keeping it in its normal upward position. Labors cause redundancy and weakness of the vaginal walls with subsequent prolapse and lacerations of the IUS which is intimately overlying the anterior vaginal wall resulting in stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Objectives. To image by 3D-US and MRI the IUS and the vagina; and to examine their histopathology. Methods. Histopathology as well as 3D-US and MR imaging are done. Results. Images show the IUS as a compact tissue cylinder that extends from the bladder neck to the urogenital diaphragm in continent women; IUS is torn in women with SUI. Conclusion. The anterior vaginal wall and the IUS are torn in patients with SUI and with vaginal prolapse. They are intact in continent women.Uvod. Unutrašnji uretralni sfinkter (IUS) je cilindričnog oblika, proteže se od vrata mokraćnog mjegura do urogenitalne dijafragme. Sastoji se od čvrstog kolagenog sloja s mišićnim vlaknima koja su izmiješana s kolagenom u sredini debljine cilindra. Jaki kolageni sloj daje IUS-u snažnu napetost stijenke potrebnu da stvori visoki intrauretralni tlak. Mišićna vlakna, inervirana alfa simpatičnim živcima (Th10-L2) su odgovorna za zatvaranje i otvaranje uretre. Kontinencija mokraće ovisi o postojanju intaktnog i jakog IUS-a te o stečenom ponašanju, učeći i vježbajući u ranom djetinjstvu kako održati visoki alfa simpatički tonus IUS-a, držeći ga zatvorenim dok je potrebno. Normalna vagina je cilindrična cijev kolageno-elastično-mišićnog tkiva. Njen jaki kolageni sloj je odgovoran za njen uspravni položaj. Porod uzrokuje suvišak i slabost vaginalne stijenke s posljedičnim prolapsom i laceracijom IUS-a, koji intimno prileži prednjoj vaginalnoj stijenci, što rezultira stresnom mokraćnom inkontinencijom (SUI). Cilj istraživanja. Prikazati trodimenzionalnim ultrazvukom (3D-UZ) i magnetskom rezonancijom (MR) te histopatološkim pregledom intrauretralni sfinkter i vaginu. Metode. Histopatološka tehnika te 3D-UZ i MR prikazi. Rezultati. Prikazi pokazuju IUS kao kompaktni tkivni cilindar koji se proteže od vrata mokraćnog mjehura do urogenitalne dijafragme u kontinentnih žena; IUS je oštećen u žena sa SUI. Zaključak. Prednja vaginalna stijenka i IUS bivaju oštećeni (prsnuti) u pacijentica sa SUI i s vaginalnim prolapsom. Oni su intaktni u kontinentnih žena

Antimicrobial resistance among migrants in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Rates of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) are rising globally and there is concern that increased migration is contributing to the burden of antibiotic resistance in Europe. However, the effect of migration on the burden of AMR in Europe has not yet been comprehensively examined. Therefore, we did a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify and synthesise data for AMR carriage or infection in migrants to Europe to examine differences in patterns of AMR across migrant groups and in different settings. METHODS: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, and Scopus with no language restrictions from Jan 1, 2000, to Jan 18, 2017, for primary data from observational studies reporting antibacterial resistance in common bacterial pathogens among migrants to 21 European Union-15 and European Economic Area countries. To be eligible for inclusion, studies had to report data on carriage or infection with laboratory-confirmed antibiotic-resistant organisms in migrant populations. We extracted data from eligible studies and assessed quality using piloted, standardised forms. We did not examine drug resistance in tuberculosis and excluded articles solely reporting on this parameter. We also excluded articles in which migrant status was determined by ethnicity, country of birth of participants' parents, or was not defined, and articles in which data were not disaggregated by migrant status. Outcomes were carriage of or infection with antibiotic-resistant organisms. We used random-effects models to calculate the pooled prevalence of each outcome. The study protocol is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42016043681. FINDINGS: We identified 2274 articles, of which 23 observational studies reporting on antibiotic resistance in 2319 migrants were included. The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or AMR infection in migrants was 25·4% (95% CI 19·1-31·8; I2 =98%), including meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (7·8%, 4·8-10·7; I2 =92%) and antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (27·2%, 17·6-36·8; I2 =94%). The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or infection was higher in refugees and asylum seekers (33·0%, 18·3-47·6; I2 =98%) than in other migrant groups (6·6%, 1·8-11·3; I2 =92%). The pooled prevalence of antibiotic-resistant organisms was slightly higher in high-migrant community settings (33·1%, 11·1-55·1; I2 =96%) than in migrants in hospitals (24·3%, 16·1-32·6; I2 =98%). We did not find evidence of high rates of transmission of AMR from migrant to host populations. INTERPRETATION: Migrants are exposed to conditions favouring the emergence of drug resistance during transit and in host countries in Europe. Increased antibiotic resistance among refugees and asylum seekers and in high-migrant community settings (such as refugee camps and detention facilities) highlights the need for improved living conditions, access to health care, and initiatives to facilitate detection of and appropriate high-quality treatment for antibiotic-resistant infections during transit and in host countries. Protocols for the prevention and control of infection and for antibiotic surveillance need to be integrated in all aspects of health care, which should be accessible for all migrant groups, and should target determinants of AMR before, during, and after migration. FUNDING: UK National Institute for Health Research Imperial Biomedical Research Centre, Imperial College Healthcare Charity, the Wellcome Trust, and UK National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare-associated Infections and Antimictobial Resistance at Imperial College London

Technical aspects and clinical limitations of sperm DNA fragmentation testing in male infertility: a global survey, current guidelines, and expert recommendations.

PURPOSE: Sperm DNA fragmentation (SDF) is a functional sperm abnormality that can impact reproductive potential, for which four assays have been described in the recently published sixth edition of the WHO laboratory manual for the examination and processing of human semen. The purpose of this study was to examine the global practices related to the use of SDF assays and investigate the barriers and limitations that clinicians face in incorporating these tests into their practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Clinicians managing male infertility were invited to complete an online survey on practices related to SDF diagnostic and treatment approaches. Their responses related to the technical aspects of SDF testing, current professional society guidelines, and the literature were used to generate expert recommendations via the Delphi method. Finally, challenges related to SDF that the clinicians encounter in their daily practice were captured. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 436 reproductive clinicians. Overall, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate Nick-End Labeling (TUNEL) is the most commonly used assay chosen by 28.6%, followed by the sperm chromatin structure assay (24.1%), and the sperm chromatin dispersion (19.1%). The choice of the assay was largely influenced by availability (70% of respondents). A threshold of 30% was the most selected cut-off value for elevated SDF by 33.7% of clinicians. Of respondents, 53.6% recommend SDF testing after 3 to 5 days of abstinence. Although 75.3% believe SDF testing can provide an explanation for many unknown causes of infertility, the main limiting factors selected by respondents are a lack of professional society guideline recommendations (62.7%) and an absence of globally accepted references for SDF interpretation (50.3%). CONCLUSIONS: This study represents the largest global survey on the technical aspects of SDF testing as well as the barriers encountered by clinicians. Unified global recommendations regarding clinician implementation and standard laboratory interpretation of SDF testing are crucial

Controversy and consensus on indications for sperm DNA fragmentation testing in male infertility: a global survey, current guidelines, and expert recommendations.

PURPOSE: Sperm DNA fragmentation (SDF) testing was recently added to the sixth edition of the World Health Organization laboratory manual for the examination and processing of human semen. Many conditions and risk factors have been associated with elevated SDF; therefore, it is important to identify the population of infertile men who might benefit from this test. The purpose of this study was to investigate global practices related to indications for SDF testing, compare the relevant professional society guideline recommendations, and provide expert recommendations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Clinicians managing male infertility were invited to take part in a global online survey on SDF clinical practices. This was conducted following the CHERRIES checklist criteria. The responses were compared to professional society guideline recommendations related to SDF and the appropriate available evidence. Expert recommendations on indications for SDF testing were then formulated, and the Delphi method was used to reach consensus. RESULTS: The survey was completed by 436 experts from 55 countries. Almost 75% of respondents test for SDF in all or some men with unexplained or idiopathic infertility, 39% order it routinely in the work-up of recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL), and 62.2% investigate SDF in smokers. While 47% of reproductive urologists test SDF to support the decision for varicocele repair surgery when conventional semen parameters are normal, significantly fewer general urologists (23%; p=0.008) do the same. Nearly 70% would assess SDF before assisted reproductive technologies (ART), either always or for certain conditions. Recurrent ART failure is a common indication for SDF testing. Very few society recommendations were found regarding SDF testing. CONCLUSIONS: This article presents the largest global survey on the indications for SDF testing in infertile men, and demonstrates diverse practices. Furthermore, it highlights the paucity of professional society guideline recommendations. Expert recommendations are proposed to help guide clinicians