Evidence for a functional subdivision of Premotor Ear-Eye Field (Aera 8B)

The Supplementary EyeField (SEF) and the Frontal Eye Field (FEF) have been described as participating in gaze shift control. Recent evidence suggests, however, that other areas of the dorso medial prefrontal cortex also influence gaze shift. Herein, we haveinvestigated electrically evoked ear-and eye movements from the PremotorEar-Eye Field, or PEEF (area8B) of macaque monkeys. We stimulated PEEF during spontaneous condition (outside the task performance) and during the execution of a visual fixation task(VFT). In the first case, we functionally identified two regions within the PEEF: a core and a belt. In the core region, stimulation elicited forward ear movements; regarding the evoked eye movements, in some penetrations, stimulation elicited contraversive fixed-vectors with a mean amplitude of 5.14◦; while in other penetrations, we observed prevalently contralateral goal-directed eye movements having end-points that fell within15◦ inrespect to the primary eye position. On the contrary, in the belt region,stimulation elicited backward ear movements; regarding the eye movements, in some penetrations stimulation elicited prevalently contralateral goal-directed eye movements having end-points that fell within 15◦ in respect to the primary eye position, while in the lateral edge of the investigated region, stimulation elicited contralateral goal-directedey emovements having end-points that fell beyond 15◦in respect to the primary eye position. Stimulation during VFT either did not elicit eye movements or evoked saccades of only a few degrees. Finally, even though no head rotation movements were observed during the stimulation period, we viewed a relationship between the duration of stimulation and the neck forces exerted by the monkey’shead. We propose an updated vision of the PEEF composed of two functional regions, core and belt, which may beinvolved in integrating auditory and visual information important to the programming of gaze orienting movements

Auditory and visual systems organization in Brodmann Area 8 for gaze-shift control: where we do not see, we can hear

Hearing is especially important for most primate species as they live in habitats of dense vegetation that limits vision. Stebbins (1980) summed up the evolution of the auditory system by assuming that earliest mammals exploited nocturnal niches since they were relatively free of many of the large, diurnal, predacious reptiles. Therefore, hearing and smell were more useful at night than vision. Our vision is limited not only in the dark but also outside the visual field. In fact, if we observe the behavior of a predator like a feline, oriented toward its prey, and at the same time a sound occurs behind, we might note three principal different behaviors: the predator could maintain its gaze and ears on the prey neglecting the sound source; the predator could maintain its gaze on the prey rotating ears and then shifting its auditory attention toward the sound source; finally the predator could break its attention and orient gaze and ears toward the sound source. A similar behavior is seen in human beings during social interaction with two or more interlocutors. In humans, orienting movements are carried out by the eyes, head, and/or body operating alone or in various combinations depending on the behavioral situation. However, in non-human primates, such as macaque monkeys, head orienting movements and, more generally, gaze-shift are accompanied by ear orienting movements, which allow the shifting of auditory attention toward a sound of interest (Bon and Lucchetti, 1994, 2006; Lucchetti et al., 2008; Lanzilotto et al., 2013; Yin, 2013). Considering all these assumptions, the auditory system could have an important role to detect information even from regions of the space that the visual system cannot explore without orienting movements. In other words, where we cannot see, we can hear. Through this opinion article, we argue that Brodmann Area 8 receives information from both auditory and visual systems and organizes a transformation of these sensory signals into gaze-shift motor commands. Our hypothesis is that this sensory-motor transformation is spatially organized, from both anatomical and functional points of view. Anatomical and functional properties of the Brodmann Area 8 (consisting in Area 8A plus Area 8B) support a medio-lateral organization for both auditory and visual systems. In particular, the lateral portion, corresponding to Area 8A or Frontal Eye Field (FEF), could play a role in receiving visual and auditory information from a central part of the visual field and then in organizing gaze-shift motor commands toward it. Otherwise, the medial portion, corresponding to Area 8B or Premotor Ear-Eye Field (PEEF), could play a role in receiving principally auditory information from a peripheral region of the space and then in organizing gaze-shift motor commands toward it

Neuronal Encoding of Self and Others' Head Rotation in the Macaque Dorsal Prefrontal Cortex.

Following gaze is a crucial skill, in primates, for understanding where and at what others are looking, and often requires head rotation. The neural basis underlying head rotation are deemed to overlap with the parieto-frontal attention/gaze-shift network. Here, we show that a set of neurons in monkey's Brodmann area 9/46dr (BA 9/46dr), which is involved in orienting processes and joint attention, becomes active during self head rotation and that the activity of these neurons cannot be accounted for by saccade-related activity (head-rotation neurons). Another set of BA 9/46dr neurons encodes head rotation performed by an observed agent facing the monkey (visually triggered neurons). Among these latter neurons, almost half exhibit the intriguing property of encoding both execution and observation of head rotation (mirror-like neurons). Finally, by means of neuronal tracing techniques, we showed that BA 9/46dr takes part into two distinct networks: a dorso/mesial network, playing a role in spatial head/gaze orientation, and a ventrolateral network, likely involved in processing social stimuli and mirroring others' head. The overall results of this study provide a new, comprehensive picture of the role of BA 9/46dr in encoding self and others' head rotation, likely playing a role in head-following behaviors

A Citrus bergamia

The aim of this research was to assess the impact of a well-characterized extract from Citrus bergamia juice on adipogenesis and/or lipolysis using mesenchymal stem cells from human adipose tissue as a cell model. To evaluate the effects on adipogenesis, some cell cultures were treated with adipogenic medium plus 10 or 100 μg/mL of extract. To determine the properties on lipolysis, additional mesenchymal stem cells were cultured with adipogenic medium for 14 days and after this time added with Citrus bergamia for further 14 days. To verify adipogenic differentiation, oil red O staining at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days was performed. Moreover, the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), adipocytes fatty acid-binding protein (A-FABP), adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), monoglyceride lipase (MGL), 5′-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)α1/2, and pAMPKα1/2 was evaluated by Western blot analysis and the release of glycerol by colorimetric assay. Citrus bergamia extract suppressed the accumulation of intracellular lipids in mesenchymal stem cells during adipogenic differentiation and promoted lipolysis by repressing the expression of adipogenic genes and activating lipolytic genes. Citrus bergamia extract could be a useful natural product for improving adipose mobilization in obesity-related disorders

Motor imagery for paediatric neurorehabilitation: how much do we know? Perspectives from a systematic review

BackgroundMotor Imagery (MI) is a cognitive process consisting in mental simulation of body movements without executing physical actions: its clinical use has been investigated prevalently in adults with neurological disorders.ObjectivesReview of the best-available evidence on the use and efficacy of MI interventions for neurorehabilitation purposes in common and rare childhood neurological disorders.Methodssystematic literature search conducted according to PRISMA by using the Scopus, PsycArticles, Cinahl, PUBMED, Web of Science (Clarivate), EMBASE, PsychINFO, and COCHRANE databases, with levels of evidence scored by OCEBM and PEDro Scales.ResultsTwenty-two original studies were retrieved and included for the analysis; MI was the unique or complementary rehabilitative treatment in 476 individuals (aged 5 to 18 years) with 10 different neurological conditions including, cerebral palsies, stroke, coordination disorders, intellectual disabilities, brain and/or spinal cord injuries, autism, pain syndromes, and hyperactivity. The sample size ranged from single case reports to cohorts and control groups. Treatment lasted 2 days to 6 months with 1 to 24 sessions. MI tasks were conventional, graded or ad-hoc. MI measurement tools included movement assessment batteries, mental chronometry tests, scales, and questionnaires, EEG, and EMG. Overall, the use of MI was stated as effective in 19/22, and uncertain in the remnant studies.ConclusionMI could be a reliable supportive/add-on (home-based) rehabilitative tool for pediatric neurorehabilitation; its clinical use, in children, is highly dependent on the complexity of MI mechanisms, which are related to the underlying neurodevelopmental disorder

Molecular mechanisms of cell death: recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death 2018.

Over the past decade, the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death (NCCD) has formulated guidelines for the definition and interpretation of cell death from morphological, biochemical, and functional perspectives. Since the field continues to expand and novel mechanisms that orchestrate multiple cell death pathways are unveiled, we propose an updated classification of cell death subroutines focusing on mechanistic and essential (as opposed to correlative and dispensable) aspects of the process. As we provide molecularly oriented definitions of terms including intrinsic apoptosis, extrinsic apoptosis, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT)-driven necrosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, parthanatos, entotic cell death, NETotic cell death, lysosome-dependent cell death, autophagy-dependent cell death, immunogenic cell death, cellular senescence, and mitotic catastrophe, we discuss the utility of neologisms that refer to highly specialized instances of these processes. The mission of the NCCD is to provide a widely accepted nomenclature on cell death in support of the continued development of the field

Changes in mood states and salivary cortisol levels following two months of training in elite female water polo players

Psychological and physiological markers have been used to maximize competitive sport preparation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of two months of training and competitions on mood states and salivary cortisol diurnal variation in 15 female elite water polo players. The results demonstrated that the β coefficient values of the regression slope of cortisol values on sampling time was significantly flatter following the training period. The values of the area under the cortisol curve (AUC) 'with respect to ground' (AUCg) and those of the β coefficients of the slope of the diurnal change in cortisol levels were highly negatively correlated. The slope correlated positively with the dysfunctional Profile of Mood States scale and negatively with the functional scale. AUCg correlated negatively with dysfunctional factors and positively with the vigor index. These findings support the hypothesis that subclinical hypocortisolism and a flattened diurnal rhythm of cortisol may play a role in determining dysfunctional mood states

Attentive processes and blood lactate in the Sambo

Background: Sambo is a martial art and combat sport that originated in the Soviet Union. There are two main stiles, Sport Sambo and Combat Sambo which resembles modern mixed martial arts. Very little literature is available about physiological aspects of Sambo and, in particular, on the possible effects on cognitive domains. The purpose of the present research was to determine if there is a correlation between a blood lactate increase and the intensity and/or selectivity of attentions. Methods: Sixteen male athletes practicing Sambo for at least 5 years participated voluntarily in the study. Each athlete had to sustain, with an interval of one week, both a Sport Sambo match and a Combat Sambo match, each lasting 5 min. Blood lactate levels as well as attentive capacities were evaluated at three different times: at rest, i.e., 5 min before the start of the session (pre), at end of the session and 15 min after its conclusion. Reaction time protocol was used to evaluate the intensity of attention, whereas divided attention was assessed for analyzing the selectivity of attention together with errors and omissions. Results: Concerning Sport Sambo, blood lactate was 1.66 mmol/L (±0.55 SD) before the session, reached a mean value of 3.40 mmol/L (±0.45 SD) at the end of the session (end) and returned to values similar to initial ones (a mean value of 1.98 mmol/L (±0.37 SD) after 15 min (15-end). None of the attentive parameters examined, showed statistically significant differences. Conversely, for Combat Sambo, it was found a significant increase in blood lactate levels that went from 1.66 mmol/L (±0.55 SD) before the session (pre), to 4.76 mmol/L (±0.60 SD) at the end (end) and then back to values similar to those observed before the session 15 min after its conclusion (15-end), i.e., 1.97 mmol/L (±0.37 SD)however, after a Combat Sambo session increases in blood lactate were associated with significant worsening of attentional mechanisms. Conclusions: In conclusion, in all the participants, the worsening of attentional mechanisms was observed only after the Combat Sambo session in which blood lactate values exceeded 4 mmol/L. This figure, also known as the Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA), is commonly used to determine the anaerobic threshold

Influences of blood lactate levels on cognitive domains and physical health during a sports stress

The present review aims to examine the effects of high blood lactate levels in healthy adult humans, for instance, after a period of exhaustive exercise, on the functioning of the cerebral cortex. In some of the examined studies, high blood lactate levels were obtained not only through exhaustive exercise but also with an intravenous infusion of lactate while the subject was immobile. This allowed us to exclude the possibility that the observed post-exercise effects were nonspecific (e.g., cortical changes in temperature, acidity, etc.). We observed that, in both experimental conditions, high levels of blood lactate are associated with a worsening of important cognitive domains such as attention or working memory or stress, without gender differences. Moreover, in both experimental conditions, high levels of blood lactate are associated with an improvement of the primary motor area (M1) excitability. Outside the frontal lobe, the use of visual evoked potentials and somatosensory evoked potentials allowed us to observe, in the occipital and parietal lobe respectively, that high levels of blood lactate are associated with an amplitude’s increase and a latency’s reduction of the early components of the evoked responses. In conclusion, significant increases of blood lactate levels could exercise a double-action in the central nervous system (CNS), with a protecting role on primary cortical areas (such as M1, primary visual area, or primary somatosensory cortex), while reducing the efficiency of adjacent regions, such as the supplementary motor area (SMA) or prefrontal cortex. These observations are compatible with the possibility that lactate works in the brain not only as an energy substrate or an angiogenetic factor but also as a true neuromodulator, which can protect from stress. In this review, we will discuss the mechanisms and effects of lactic acid products produced during an anaerobic exercise lactate, focusing on their action at the level of the central nervous system with particular attention to the primary motor, the somatosensory evoked potentials, and the occipital and parietal lobe

Risk-taking behavior, the second-to-fourth digit ratio and psychological features in a sample of cavers

Background The risk-taking behavior is largely modulated by the subject’s history, its lifestyles, by the characteristics of the situations with which it is compared, and also by the effects of prenatal androgens. Thus, the personality of the single person is a significant predictor of such way of acting. Methods The present study aimed to explore the relationship between Digit Ratio Measurement (2D:4D) and personality factors capable to be good predictors for choosing highly risky activities, such as caving. Furthermore, our purpose was to investigate whether 2D:4D ratio is related to cavers’ affective states and to assess the personological and emotional features of 34 healthy cavers, aged between 24 and 71 years (M = 39.70, SD = 9.81). Results Data analysis showed several significant correlations between 2D:4D and Deliberate Risk Taking (RTI) and Precautionary Behavior (RTI), confirming that 2D:4D is a reliable index able to predict risk-taking behaviors. Furthermore, data analysis showed that Conscientiousness and its sub-dimension Scrupulousness (BFQ-2) are recurrent among significant correlations; in particular, the latter reports negative correlations with many factors of POMS. Moreover, all participants seemed to have a good attitude to collaboration, in terms of goal-direct strategy, and an adequate management of negative affective states, useful to maintaining a good level of stress within the group. Finally, the BFQ-2 factor Openness to culture seemed to be a predominant feature in the cavers, and this feature could be considered as predictive in the choice of an activity, such as caving, which requires curiosity, perseverance and a great planning of cave exploration