A comparison of graduated exposure, training in verbal coping skills : and a combination of those procedures in treating fear of the dark in four- and five-year old children

While a great deal of effort by behavioral researchers and therapists has been directed at demonstrating the success of their treatment techniques in modifying adult fears (Marks, 1974), relatively little effort has been devoted to the treatment of fears and phobias in children. Reports of previous research with childhood populations have suggested therapeutic effects for treatment procedures based on the graduated exposure to the fearful stimulus or situation (Jones, 1924a; Lazarus, 1960), training in verbal coping skills (Kanfer, Karoly, & Newman, 1975), and a combination of verbal skill acquisition and graduated exposure (Jersild & Holmes, 1935). However, no systematic research comparing these treatment approaches with children has been reported. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of a graduated exposure procedure, a verbal coping skill procedure, and a combination of the two procedures, in the treatment of fear of the dark behavior in 4- and 5-year-old children using both behavioral and subjective measures of fearfulness. Thirty-two children attending a private day care center were selected on the basis of their minimal dark tolerance as measured by two Behavioral Avoidance Tests. Children who failed to remain in total darkness for 30 seconds on both behavioral tests were operationally defined as dark fearful and eligible for treatment

Memory and organizational processes in children of high and average intellectual ability

The purpose of the present study was to investigate organizational processes in the free recall of children having average and high intelligence test scores. If existing IQ tests are in some way assessing individual differences in basic cognitive processes, we should expect to observe differences in the performance of psychometrically determined bright and average children on laboratory tasks designed to study these processes. Subjects in the study were 88 public-school children, 44 in the third grade and 44 in the fifth grade. Twenty-two children at each grade level had IQ scores greater than 120. Twenty-two children at each grade level had IQ scores between 90 and 109. Equal numbers of males and females were tested at each IQ and grade level. The children were individually administered four tasks, which were separated by at least two days. The four tasks consisted of a metamemory interview concerning organization and memory, multitrial free recall of unrelated words, multitrial free recall of categorized words, and a sorting task followed by free recall of the sorted words. The metamemory and sorting tasks were presented first and last, respectively; the order of the remaining two tasks was counterbalanced across children

Depression in college students : analysis of activity preference and comparison of treatment approaches

The first goal of this study was to determine whether depressed and non-depressed college students could be discriminated on the basis of both the quantity and quality of reported everyday activities. Results of a multivariate discriminant analysis demonstrated that with the Inclusion of a large number of activity variables depressed students can be differentiated from non-depressed students. The second goal of the study was to compare the effectiveness of different therapy techniques in alleviating the reported depression of college students. Two behavioral treatment groups, a Reinforcement Training group which attempted to increase skills in audience behavior and a Programmed Activities group which attempted to directly manipulate the depressed individual's environment into a potentially more reinforcing one, were compared with two other treatment approaches, a Problem Ventilation group, which discussed current personal problems, a Childhood Experiences group which discussed early experiences and depressed and non-depressed No-Treatment control groups on measures of depression and activity preference. Results of the analyses showed that all of the depressed groups reported equivalent reductions in depression at the end of the study

The Effect of Keyboard-Based Word Processing on Students With Different Working Memory Capacity During the Process of Academic Writing

This study addresses the current debate about the beneficial effects of text processing software on students with different working memory (WM) during the process of academic writing, especially with regard to the ability to display higher-level conceptual thinking. A total of 54 graduate students (15 male, 39 female) wrote one essay by hand and one by keyboard. Our results show a beneficial effect of text processing software, in terms of both the qualitative and quantitative writing output. A hierarchical cluster analysis was used to detect distinct performance groups in the sample. These performance groups mapped onto three differing working memory profiles. The groups with higher mean WM scores manifested superior writing complexity using a keyboard, in contrast to the cluster with the lowest mean WM. The results also point out that more revision during the writing process itself does not inevitably reduce the quality of the final output

Advancing the Selection of Neurodevelopmental Measures in Epidemiological Studies of Environmental Chemical Exposure and Health Effects

With research suggesting increasing incidence of pediatric neurodevelopmental disorders, questions regarding etiology continue to be raised. Neurodevelopmental function tests have been used in epidemiology studies to evaluate relationships between environmental chemical exposures and neurodevelopmental deficits. Limitations of currently used tests and difficulties with their interpretation have been described, but a comprehensive critical examination of tests commonly used in studies of environmental chemicals and pediatric neurodevelopmental disorders has not been conducted. We provide here a listing and critical evaluation of commonly used neurodevelopmental tests in studies exploring effects from chemical exposures and recommend measures that are not often used, but should be considered. We also discuss important considerations in selecting appropriate tests and provide a case study by reviewing the literature on polychlorinated biphenyls

The relationship between salivary C-reactive protein and cognitive function in children aged 11-14 years: Does psychopathology have a moderating effect?

Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP), a non-specific biomarker of systemic bodily inflammation, has been associated with more pronounced cognitive impairments in adults with psychiatric disorders, particularly in the domains of memory and executive function. Whether this association is present in early life (i.e., the time at which the cognitive impairments that characterise these disorders become evident), and is specific to those with emerging psychiatric disorders, has yet to be investigated. To this end, we examined the association between salivary CRP and cognitive function in children aged 11- 14 years and explored the moderating effect of psychopathology. The study utilised data from an established longitudinal investigation of children recruited from the community (N=107) that had purposively over-sampled individuals experiencing psychopathology (determined using questionnaires). CRP was measured in saliva samples and participants completed assessments of cognition (memory and executive function) and psychopathology (internalising and externalising symptoms and psychotic-like experiences). Linear regression models indicated that higher salivary CRP was associated with poorer letter fluency (β=-0.24, p=0.006) and scores on the inhibition (β=-0.28, p=0.004) and inhibition/switching (β=-0.36, p<0.001) subtests of the colour-word interference test, but not with performance on any of the memory tasks (working, visual, and verbal memory tasks). Results were largely unchanged after adjustment for psychopathology and no significant interactions between CRP and psychopathology were observed on any cognitive measure. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that elevated salivary CRP is associated with poorer cognitive function in early life, but that this association is not moderated by concurrent psychopathology. These findings have implications for early intervention strategies that attempt to ameliorate cognitive deficits associated with emerging psychiatric disorders. Further research is needed to determine whether salivary CRP levels can be used as a valid marker of peripheral inflammation among healthy adolescents

Treatment for Schistosoma japonicum, Reduction of Intestinal Parasite Load, and Cognitive Test Score Improvements in School-Aged Children

Parasitic worm infections are associated with cognitive impairment and lower academic achievement for infected relative to uninfected children. However, it is unclear whether curing or reducing worm infection intensity improves child cognitive function. We examined the independent associations between: (i) Schistosoma japonicum infection-free duration, (ii) declines in single helminth species, and (iii) joint declines of ≥2 soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections and improvements in four cognitive tests during18 months of follow-up. Enrolled were schistosome-infected school-aged children among whom coinfection with STH was common. All children were treated for schistosome infection only at enrolment with praziquantel. Children cured or schistosome-free for >12 months scored higher in memory and verbal fluency tests compared to persistently infected children. Likewise, declines of single and polyparasitic STH infections predicted higher scores in three of four tests. We conclude that reducing the intensity of certain helminth species and the frequency of multi-species STH infections may have long-term benefits for affected children's cognitive performance. The rapidity of schistosome re-infection and the ubiquity of concurrent multi-species infection highlight the importance of sustained deworming for both schistosome and STH infections to enhance the learning and educational attainment of children in helminth-endemic settings

Anemia of Inflammation Is Related to Cognitive Impairment among Children in Leyte, The Philippines

Past studies have demonstrated that iron deficiency anemia is related to deficits in cognitive fucntioning in children, and treating iron deficiency anemia with iron supplementation can improve cognition. Anemia of inflammation is another type of anemia caused by many diseases of lesser-developed countries including bacterial and parasitic infections. Anemia of inflammation is characterized by disordered iron metabolism, such that iron is sequestered in storage forms, preventing its use from tissues that require it. We hypothesized that decreased iron delivery to the brain in the context of anemia of inflammation might lead to decreased cognitive performance. This study found that children with anemia of inflammation had decreased cognitive performance in specific domains, compared to subjects with no anemia. True total body iron deficiency anemia was related to lower performance in the same domains. The only treatment option for anemia of inflammation is treatment of the underlying disease. Iron supplementation will not prevent cognitive deficits in children with anemia of inflammation. Interventions aimed towards maximizing the cognitive development of children in lesser-developed countries will need to focus on the prevention and treatment of bacterial and parasitic infections