Surface rupture of multiple crustal faults in the 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikōura, New Zealand, earthquake

Multiple (>20 >20 ) crustal faults ruptured to the ground surface and seafloor in the 14 November 2016 M w Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake, and many have been documented in detail, providing an opportunity to understand the factors controlling multifault ruptures, including the role of the subduction interface. We present a summary of the surface ruptures, as well as previous knowledge including paleoseismic data, and use these data and a 3D geological model to calculate cumulative geological moment magnitudes (M G w MwG ) and seismic moments for comparison with those from geophysical datasets. The earthquake ruptured faults with a wide range of orientations, sense of movement, slip rates, and recurrence intervals, and crossed a tectonic domain boundary, the Hope fault. The maximum net surface displacement was ∼12  m ∼12  m on the Kekerengu and the Papatea faults, and average displacements for the major faults were 0.7–1.5 m south of the Hope fault, and 5.5–6.4 m to the north. M G w MwG using two different methods are M G w MwG 7.7 +0.3 −0.2 7.7−0.2+0.3 and the seismic moment is 33%–67% of geophysical datasets. However, these are minimum values and a best estimate M G w MwG incorporating probable larger slip at depth, a 20 km seismogenic depth, and likely listric geometry is M G w MwG 7.8±0.2 7.8±0.2 , suggests ≤32% ≤32% of the moment may be attributed to slip on the subduction interface and/or a midcrustal detachment. Likely factors contributing to multifault rupture in the Kaikōura earthquake include (1) the presence of the subduction interface, (2) physical linkages between faults, (3) rupture of geologically immature faults in the south, and (4) inherited geological structure. The estimated recurrence interval for the Kaikōura earthquake is ≥5,000–10,000  yrs ≥5,000–10,000  yrs , and so it is a relatively rare event. Nevertheless, these findings support the need for continued advances in seismic hazard modeling to ensure that they incorporate multifault ruptures that cross tectonic domain boundaries

Fault kinematics and surface deformation across a releasing bend during the 2010 M_W 7.1 Darfield, New Zealand, earthquake revealed by differential LiDAR and cadastral surveying

Dextral slip at the western end of the east-west–striking Greendale fault during the 2010 M_W 7.1 Darfield earthquake transferred onto a northwest-trending segment, across an apparent transtensional zone, here named the Waterford releasing bend. We used detailed surface mapping, differential analysis of pre- and postearthquake light detection and ranging (LiDAR), and property boundary (cadastral) resurveying to produce high-resolution (centimeter-scale) estimates of coseismic ground-surface displacements across the Waterford releasing bend. Our results indicate that the change in orientation on the Greendale fault incorporates elements of a large-scale releasing bend (from the viewpoint of westward motion on the south side of the fault) as well as a smaller-scale restraining stepover (from the viewpoint of southeastward motion on the north side of the fault). These factors result in the Waterford releasing bend exhibiting a decrease in displacement to near zero at the change in strike, and the presence within the overall releasing bend of a nested, localized restraining stepover with contractional bulging. The exceptional detail of surface deformation and kinematics obtained from this contemporary surface-rupture event illustrates the value of multimethod investigations. Our data provide insights into strike-slip fault bend kinematics, and into the potentially subtle but important structures that may be present at bends on historic and prehistoric rupture traces

Complex multifault rupture during the 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake, New Zealand

On 14 November 2016, northeastern South Island of New Zealand was struck by a major moment magnitude (Mw) 7.8 earthquake. Field observations, in conjunction with interferometric synthetic aperture radar, Global Positioning System, and seismology data, reveal this to be one of the most complex earthquakes ever recorded. The rupture propagated northward for more than 170 kilometers along both mapped and unmapped faults before continuing offshore at the island’s northeastern extent. Geodetic and field observations reveal surface ruptures along at least 12 major faults, including possible slip along the southern Hikurangi subduction interface; extensive uplift along much of the coastline; and widespread anelastic deformation, including the ~8-meter uplift of a fault-bounded block. This complex earthquake defies many conventional assumptions about the degree to which earthquake ruptures are controlled by fault segmentation and should motivate reevaluation of these issues in seismic hazard models