Vulnerability of democratic electoral systems

The two most common types of electoral systems (ES) used in electing national legislatures are proportional representation and plurality voting. When they are evaluated, most often the arguments come from social choice theory and political sciences. The former overall uses an axiomatic approach including a list of mathematical criteria a system should fulfill. The latter predominantly focuses on the trade-off between proportionality of apportionment and governability. However, there is no consensus on the best ES, nor on the set of indexes and measures that would be the most important in such assessment. Moreover, the ongoing debate about the fairness of national elections neglects the study of their vulnerabilities. Here we address this research gap with a framework that can measure electoral systems' vulnerability to different means of influence. Using in silico analysis we show that plurality voting systems are less stable than proportional representation. They are also more susceptible to political agitators and media propaganda. A review of real-world ES reveals possible improvements in their design leading to lower susceptibility. Additionally, our simulation framework allows computation of popular indexes, as the Gallagher index or the effective number of parties, in different scenarios. Our work provides a new tool for dealing with modern threats to democracy that could destabilize voting processes. Furthermore, our results add an important argument in a long-standing discussion on evaluation of ES

Co-benefits and trade-offs in the water–energy nexus of irrigation modernization in China

There are strong interdependencies between water use in agriculture and energy consumption as water saving technologies can require increased pumping and pressurizing. The Chinese Government includes water efficiency improvement and carbon intensity reduction targets in the 12th Five-Year Plan (5YP. 2011–2015), yet the links between energy use and irrigation modernization are not always addressed in policy targets. Here we build an original model of the energy embedded in water pumping for irrigated agriculture and its related processes. The model is based on the physical processes of irrigation schemes and the implication of technological developments, comprising all processes from extraction and conveyance of water to its application in the field. The model uses data from government sources to assess policy targets for deployment of irrigation technologies, which aim to reduce water application and contribute to adaptation of Chinese agriculture to climate change. The consequences of policy targets involve co-beneficial outcomes that achieve water and energy savings, or trade-offs in which reduced water application leads to increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We analyze irrigation efficiency and energy use in four significant provinces and nationally, using scenarios based on the targets of the 12th 5YP. At the national scale, we find that expansion of sprinklers and micro-irrigation as outlined in the 5YP would increase GHG emissions from agricultural water use, however, emissions decrease in those provinces with predominant groundwater use and planned expansion of low-pressure pipes. We show that the most costly technologies relate to trade-offs, while co-benefits are generally achieved with less expensive technologies. The investment cost per area of irrigation technology expansion does not greatly affect the outcome in terms of water, but in terms of energy the most expensive technologies are more energy-intensive and produce more emissions. The results show that water supply configuration (proportion of surface to groundwater) largely determines the potential energy savings from reductions in water application. The paper examines the importance of fertigation and highlights briefly some policy implications

Global Evidence of Constraints and Limits to Human Adaptation

Constraints and limits to adaptation are critical to understanding the extent to which human and natural systems can successfully adapt to climate change. We conduct a systematic review of 1,682 academic studies on human adaptation responses to identify patterns in constraints and limits to adaptation for different regions, sectors, hazards, adaptation response types, and actors. Using definitions of constraints and limits provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), we find that most literature identifies constraints to adaptation but that there is limited literature focused on limits to adaptation. Central and South America and Small Islands generally report greater constraints and both hard and soft limits to adaptation. Technological, infrastructural, and ecosystem-based adaptation suggest more evidence of constraints and hard limits than other types of responses. Individuals and households face economic and socio-cultural constraints which also inhibit behavioral adaptation responses and may lead to limits. Finance, governance, institutional, and policy constraints are most prevalent globally. These findings provide early signposts for boundaries of human adaptation and are of high relevance for guiding proactive adaptation financing and governance from local to global scales

Ten principles to integrate the water-energy-land nexus with climate services for co-producing local and regional integrated assessments

The water-energy-land nexus requires long-sighted approaches that help avoid maladaptive pathways to ensure its promise to deliver insights and tools that improve policy-making. Climate services can form the foundation to avoid myopia in nexus studies by providing information about how climate change will alter the balance of nexus resources and the nature of their interactions. Nexus studies can help climate services by providing information about the implications of climate-informed decisions for other economic sectors across nexus resources. First-of-its-kind guidance is provided to combine nexus studies and climate services. The guidance consists of ten principles and a visual guide, which are discussed together with questions to compare diverse case studies and with examples to support the application of the principles

Social Innovation in Community Energy in Europe: A Review of the Evidence

Citizen-driven Renewable Energy (RE) projects of various kinds, known collectively as community energy (CE), have an important part to play in the worldwide transition to cleaner energy systems. On the basis of evidence from 8 European countries, we investigate CE, over approximately the last 50 years (c.1970–2018), through the lens of Social Innovation (SI). We carry out a detailed review of literature around the social dimension of renewable energy; we collect, describe and map CE initiatives from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the UK; and we unpack the SI concept into 4 operational criteria which we suggest are essential to recognizing SI in CE. These are: (1) Crises and opportunities; (2) the agency of civil society; (3) reconfiguration of social practices, institutions and networks; (4) new ways of working. We identify three main phases of SI in CE. The environmental movements of the 1960s and the “oil shocks” of the 1970s provided the catalyst for a series of innovative societal responses around energy and self-sufficiency. A second wave of SI relates to the mainstreaming of RE and associated government support mechanisms. In this phase, with some important exceptions, successful CE initiatives were mainly confined to those countries where they were already embedded as innovators in the previous phase. The third phase of CE innovation relates to the societal response to the Great Recession that began in 2008 and lasted most of the subsequent decade. CE initiatives formed around this time were also strongly focused around democratization of energy and citizen empowerment in the context of rising energy prices, a weak economy, and a production and supply system dominated by excessively powerful multinational energy firms. CE initiatives today are more diverse than at any time previously, and are likely to continue to act as incubators for pioneering initiatives addressing virtually all aspects of energy. However, large multinational energy firms remain the dominant vehicle for delivery of the energy transition, and the apparent excitement in European policy circles for “community energy” does not extend to democratization of energy or genuine empowerment of citizens

Redefining flux ropes in heliophysics

Magnetic flux ropes manifest as twisted bundles of magnetic field lines. They carry significant amounts of solar mass in the heliosphere. This paper underlines the need to advance our understanding of the fundamental physics of heliospheric flux ropes and provides the motivation to significantly improve the status quo of flux rope research through novel and requisite approaches. It briefly discusses the current understanding of flux rope formation and evolution, and summarizes the strategies that have been undertaken to understand the dynamics of heliospheric structures. The challenges and recommendations put forward to address them are expected to broaden the in-depth knowledge of our nearest star, its dynamics, and its role in its region of influence, the heliosphere.Fil: Nieves Chinchilla, Teresa. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Pal, Sanchita. George Mason University. School Of Physics. Astronomy And Computational Sciences; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Salman, Tarik M.. George Mason University. School Of Physics. Astronomy And Computational Sciences; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Carcaboso, Fernando. Catholic University Of America; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Guidoni, Silvina E.. American University. College Of Arts & Sciences. Physics Departament.; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Cremades Fernandez, Maria Hebe. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad de Mendoza. Facultad de Ingenieria; ArgentinaFil: Narock, Ayris. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Balmaceda, Laura Antonia. George Mason University. School Of Physics. Astronomy And Computational Sciences; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados Unidos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaFil: Lynch, Benjamin J.. University of California at Berkeley; Estados UnidosFil: Al Haddad, Nada. University Of New Hampshire; Estados UnidosFil: Rodríguez García, Laura. Universidad de Alcalá; EspañaFil: Narock, Thomas W.. Goucher College; Estados UnidosFil: Dos Santos, Luiz F. G.. Shell Global Solutions; Estados UnidosFil: Regnault, Florian. University Of New Hampshire; Estados UnidosFil: Kay, Christina. Catholic University Of America; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Winslow, Réka M.. University Of New Hampshire; Estados UnidosFil: Palmerio, Erika. Predictive Science Inc.; Estados UnidosFil: Davies, Emma E.. University Of New Hampshire; Estados UnidosFil: Scolini, Camilla. University Of New Hampshire; Estados UnidosFil: Weiss, Andreas J.. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Alzate, Nathalia. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Jeunon, Mariana. Catholic University Of America; Estados Unidos. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados UnidosFil: Pujadas, Roger. Universidad Politécnica de Catalunya; España. National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Estados Unido

Climate change: the necessary, the possible and the desirable Earth League climate statement on the implications for climate policy from the 5th IPCC Assessment

The development of human civilisations has occurred at a time of stable climate. This climate stability is now threatened by human activity. The rising global climate risk occurs at a decisive moment for world development. World nations are currently discussing a global development agenda consequent to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which ends in 2015. It is increasingly possible to envisage a world where absolute poverty is largely eradicated within one generation and where ambitious goals on universal access and equal opportunities for dignified lives are adopted. These grand aspirations for a world population approaching or even exceeding nine billion in 2050 is threatened by substantial global environmental risks and by rising inequality. Research shows that development gains, in both rich and poor nations, can be undermined by social, economic and ecological problems caused by human-induced global environmental change. Climate risks, and associated changes in marine and terrestrial ecosystems that regulate the resilience of the climate system, are at the forefront of these global risks. We, as citizens with a strong engagement in Earth system science and socio-ecological dynamics, share the vision of a more equitable and prosperous future for the world, yet we also see threats to this future from shifts in climate and environmental processes. Without collaborative action now, our shared Earth system may not be able to sustainably support a large proportion of humanity in the decades ahead

Understanding the roles of the P2X7 receptor in solid tumour progression and therapeutic perspectives

P2X7 is an intriguing ionotropic receptor for which the activation by extracellular ATP induces rapid inward cationic currents and intracellular signalling pathways associated with numerous physiological processes such as the induction of the inflammatory cascade, the survival and proliferation of cells. In contrast, long-term stimulation of P2X7 is generally associated with membrane permeabilisation and cell death. Recently, P2X7 has attracted great attention in the cancer field, and particularly in the neoplastic transformation and the progression of solid tumours. A growing number of studies were published; however they often appeared contradictory in their results and conclusions. As such, the involvement of P2X7 in the oncogenic process remains unclear so far. The present review aims to discuss the current knowledge and hypotheses on the involvement of the P2X7 receptor in the development and progression of solid tumours, and highlight the different aspects that require further clarification in order to decipher whether P2X7 could be considered as a cancer biomarker or as a target for pharmacological intervention. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane channels and transporters in cancers

P2X7 in Cancer: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutics

P2X7 is a transmembrane receptor expressed in multiple cell types including neurons, dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, B and T cells where it can drive a wide range of physiological responses from pain transduction to immune response. Upon activation by its main ligand, extracellular ATP, P2X7 can form a nonselective channel for cations to enter the cell. Prolonged activation of P2X7, via high levels of extracellular ATP over an extended time period can lead to the formation of a macropore, leading to depolarization of the plasma membrane and ultimately to cell death. Thus, dependent on its activation state, P2X7 can either drive cell survival and proliferation, or induce cell death. In cancer, P2X7 has been shown to have a broad range of functions, including playing key roles in the development and spread of tumor cells. It is therefore unsurprising that P2X7 has been reported to be upregulated in several malignancies. Critically, ATP is present at high extracellular concentrations in the tumor microenvironment (TME) compared to levels observed in normal tissues. These high levels of ATP should present a survival challenge for cancer cells, potentially leading to constitutive receptor activation, prolonged macropore formation and ultimately to cell death. Therefore, to deliver the proven advantages for P2X7 in driving tumor survival and metastatic potential, the P2X7 macropore must be tightly controlled while retaining other functions. Studies have shown that commonly expressed P2X7 splice variants, distinct SNPs and post-translational receptor modifications can impair the capacity of P2X7 to open the macropore. These receptor modifications and potentially others may ultimately protect cancer cells from the negative consequences associated with constitutive activation of P2X7. Significantly, the effects of both P2X7 agonists and antagonists in preclinical tumor models of cancer demonstrate the potential for agents modifying P2X7 function, to provide innovative cancer therapies. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding of the structure and functions of P2X7 and how these impact P2X7 roles in cancer progression. We also review potential therapeutic approaches directed against P2X7