Agricultural influences on carbon emissions and sequestration

This report was presented at the UK Organic Research 2002 Conference. Agricultural systems contribute to carbon emissions through several mechanisms: the direct use of fossil fuels in farm operations, the indirect use of embodied energy in inputs that are energy intensive to manufacture (e.g. fertilizers), and the cultivation of soils resulting in the loss of soil organic matter. However agriculture can also sequester carbon when organic matter accumulates in the soil or above-ground woody biomass acts as a permanent sink or is used as an energy source that substitutes for fossil fuels. The latest empirical data on agricultural carbon emissions and carbon sequestration opportunities in agricultural systems are reviewed and the necessary land use and management practices that will need to be employed to optimise carbon sequestration are considered

Social capital and connectedness: Issues and implications for agriculture, rural development and natural resource management in ACP countries

Abstract Social capital is a new term that refers to the value of connectedness and trust between people. It is a pre-requisite for sustainable management and development of natural resources. For as long as people have managed natural resources, they have engaged in forms of collective action. As a result, constructive resource management rules and norms have been embedded in many cultures and societies. But in recent agricultural and rural development, it has been rare for the importance of local groups and institutions to be recognised. Social capital is one of five key assets for sustainable livelihoods. Although some believe that the term ‘capital’ does not add anything to existing social theories and practice, it does nonetheless draw clear attention to the problem of depletion of assets. Sustainability implies maintaining or improving renewable assets for future generations. As it lowers the costs of working together, social capital facilitates cooperation. People have the confidence to invest in collective activities, knowing that others will also do so. They are also less likely to engage in unfettered private actions that result in negative impacts, such as resource degradation

Impact of Organic Agriculture on the Environmental and Economic Performance of Croatia

Within the framework of an FAO technical assistance project for Croatia a study assessing the feasibility of large-scale conversion to organic farming was carried out. It examined the consequences of the conversion of a substantial portion of Croatian agricultural land to organic farming in relation to national agricultural output (food security) and related environmental and economic performance. As farming is closely linked with a range of economic activities, besides farming the assessment also took into account the impact of wide-spread adoption of organic agriculture on farm-upstream linked sectors (FULS). These include energy production and supply, manufacturing of agri-chemical inputs, trade, transport and research, education, advisory, veterinary and administrative services. The agricultural output, environmental and economic performance of the baseline scenario (average of 2001-2003) was compared with fourteen development scenarios involving various shares of utilised agricultural land (UAA) under organic management (10, 25, 50 and 100 per cent) and different yields (100, 75 and 50 per cent of the baseline). In order to enable the same consumer purchasing power as in the baseline situation, organic products were assumed to obtain no premium price in twelve scenarios. In two scenarios approaching the current situation in some European countries (10 and 25 per cent of UAA under organic management with 75 per cent yield) a 10 per cent premium price for organic produce was included. In order to obtain the real value added (RVA) created by farming and FULS, the generated gross value added (GVA) was corrected for the associated environmental costs (damage to air, water and soil) and public investments. The public investments, emissions and environmental degradation of air, water and soil were quantified using data from various official documents and databases, as well as by performing new calculations. A monetary value was assigned to all identified environmental damages throughout farming and FULS using various environmental accounting methods. The difference between the GVA created by the examined economic chain and the sum of environmental costs and public investments resulted in the RVA. The RVA was used as a measurement indicating the economic feasibility of organic farming development scenarios as compared with the baseline scenario. If the entire UAA in Croatia converted to organic farming and if the crops and livestock gave the same yields as in the baseline situation, the farming and FULS would generate a 43 per cent higher annual GVA and 155 per cent higher annual RVA than the baseline scenario. This scenario implies refraining from the use of nearly all agri-chemical inputs. It consumes far less fossil energy (notably in FULS) and causes less environmental damage to soil and water (notably in the farming sector). Consequently, its environmental costs are nearly two times lower than in the baseline. The study results suggest that Croatian farming and FULS in the period 2001-2003 when measured in terms of RVA produced a negative effect on the economy and society in general. Farming is the key sector since it accounts for 90 per cent of the workforce, 61 per cent of GVA, 89 per cent of environmental costs and 77 per cent of public investments of the entire economic chain examined. The scenario involving a 100 per cent organic area, but yielding only 75 per cent of the baseline scenario produces a 17 per cent lower GVA. However, when corrected for public investments and environmental costs it results in 71 per cent higher RVA than the baseline scenario. The 100 per cent organic area scenario achieving only half of the baseline yields results in both lower GVA (75 percent lower) and RVA (6 per cent lower) than the baseline scenario. Of all examined scenarios, this is the least favourable for organic farming as its results exhibit the biggest discrepancies in comparison with the baseline situation. Similar results were obtained in all other scenarios (involving 50, 25 and 10 per cent organic area with 100, 75 and 50 per cent yield levels as compared to the baseline). The organic options, measured against the RVA created are better (7-89 per cent), only in cases where the yield level is 75 or 100 percent of the baseline. If the obtained yields are 50 per cent lower, the organic scenario options create both lower GVA (1, 19 and 37 per cent) and RVA (1, 2 and 3 per cent) than the baseline. The scenarios assuming a 10 per cent premium price (10 and 25 per cent organic area achieving 75 per cent of the baseline yields) create about the same GVA as the baseline, but 10-25 per cent higher RVA. All scenarios involving organic farming decrease environmental costs compared to the baseline. Provided the yield is not 50 per cent lower, all organic scenarios result in a higher RVA than the baseline. The agricultural output (yields) remains the key factor in determining the feasibility of a shift to organic farming. A severe reduction in agricultural output jeopardises national food security. However, since organic farming goes hand in hand with careful management, in the case of Croatia it would not necessarily lead to (much) lower yields. Pioneering efforts in Croatia, as well as evidence from other countries with a similar agricultultural situation also indicate this. Conversion to large-scale organic farming requires high human and social capital. Organic farming is low-input from the point of view of the use of external farming inputs, but is high-input from the point of view of the knowledge and skills needed. In the case of Croatia where farmers and other key stakeholders have a relatively low level of general education and poor agricultural training, this point will certainly be the main obstacle preventing a greater spread of organic farming. Policy efforts should therefore focus primarily on stimulating the formation of social capital and increasing human capacities of all stakeholders involved in the organic food chain

Environmental and macroeconomic impact assessment of different development scenarios to organic and low-input farming in Croatia

This study was commissioned by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) within the framework of an FAO technical assistance project for Croatia. It assessed macroeconomic and environmental impact assessment of large-scale conversion to organic agriculture. It examined the consequences of such a conversion to national agricultural output and related environmental and economic performance. The assessment also took into account the impact of wide-spread adoption of organic agriculture on farm-upstream linked sectors (FULS). These include energy production and supply, manufacturing of agri-chemical inputs, trade, transport and research, education, advisory, veterinary and administrative services. The agricultural output, environmental and economic performance of the baseline scenario (average of 2001-2003) was compared with fourteen development scenarios involving various shares of utilised agricultural land (UAA) under organic management (10, 25, 50 and 100 per cent) and different yields (100, 75 and 50 per cent of the baseline). In order to obtain the real value added (RVA) created by farming and FULS, the generated gross value added (GVA) was corrected for the associated environmental costs (damage to air, water and soil) and public investments. A monetary value was assigned to all identified environmental damages throughout farming and FULS using various environmental accounting methods. If the entire UAA in Croatia converted to organic farming and if the crops and livestock gave the same yields as in the baseline situation, the farming and FULS would generate a 43 per cent higher annual GVA and 155 per cent higher annual RVA than the baseline scenario. This scenario implies refraining from the use of nearly all agri-chemical inputs. It consumes far less fossil energy (notably in FULS) and causes less environmental damage to soil and water (notably in the farming sector). Consequently, its environmental costs are nearly two times lower than in the baseline. The study results suggest that Croatian farming and FULS in the period 2001-2003 when measured in terms of RVA produced a negative effect on the economy and society in general. Farming is the key sector since it accounts for 90 per cent of the workforce, 61 per cent of GVA, 89 per cent of environmental costs and 77 per cent of public investments of the entire economic chain examined. The scenario involving a 100 per cent organic area, but yielding only 75 per cent of the baseline scenario produces a 17 per cent lower GVA. However, when corrected for public investments and environmental costs it results in 71 per cent higher RVA than the baseline scenario. The 100 per cent organic area scenario achieving only half of the baseline yields results in both lower GVA (75 percent lower) and RVA (6 per cent lower) than the baseline scenario. Of all examined scenarios, this is the least favourable for organic farming as its results exhibit the biggest discrepancies in comparison with the baseline situation. Similar results were obtained in all other scenarios (involving 50, 25 and 10 per cent organic area with 100, 75 and 50 per cent yield levels as compared to the baseline). The organic options, measured against the RVA created are better (7-89 per cent), only in cases where the yield level is 75 or 100 percent of the baseline. If the obtained yields are 50 per cent lower, the organic scenario options create both lower GVA (1, 19 and 37 per cent) and RVA (1, 2 and 3 per cent) than the baseline. The scenarios assuming a 10 per cent premium price (10 and 25 per cent organic area achieving 75 per cent of the baseline yields) create about the same GVA as the baseline, but 10-25 per cent higher RVA. All scenarios involving organic farming decrease environmental costs compared to the baseline. Provided the yield is not 50 per cent lower, all organic scenarios result in a higher RVA than the baseline. The agricultural output (yields) remains the key factor in determining the feasibility of a shift to organic farming. A severe reduction in agricultural output jeopardises national food security. However, since organic farming goes hand in hand with careful management, in the case of Croatia it would not necessarily lead to (much) lower yields. Pioneering efforts in Croatia, as well as evidence from other countries with a similar agricultultural situation also indicate this. Conversion to large-scale organic farming requires high human and social capital. Organic farming is low-input from the point of view of the use of external farming inputs, but is high-input from the point of view of the knowledge and skills needed. In the case of Croatia where farmers and other key stakeholders have a relatively low level of general education and poor agricultural training, this point will certainly be the main obstacle preventing a greater spread of organic farming. Policy efforts should therefore focus primarily on stimulating the formation of social capital and increasing human capacities of all stakeholders involved in the organic food chain

A Repeated Measures Experiment of Green Exercise to Improve Self-Esteem in UK School Children

Exercising in natural, green environments creates greater improvements in adult's self-esteem than exercise undertaken in urban or indoor settings. No comparable data are available for children. The aim of this study was to determine whether so called 'green exercise' affected changes in self-esteem; enjoyment and perceived exertion in children differently to urban exercise. We assessed cardiorespiratory fitness (20 m shuttle-run) and self-reported physical activity (PAQ-A) in 11 and 12 year olds (n = 75). Each pupil completed two 1.5 mile timed runs, one in an urban and another in a rural environment. Trials were completed one week apart during scheduled physical education lessons allocated using a repeated measures design. Self-esteem was measured before and after each trial, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and enjoyment were assessed after completing each trial. We found a significant main effect (F (1,74), = 12.2, p<0.001), for the increase in self-esteem following exercise but there was no condition by exercise interaction (F (1,74), = 0.13, p = 0.72). There were no significant differences in perceived exertion or enjoyment between conditions. There was a negative correlation (r = -0.26, p = 0.04) between habitual physical activity and RPE during the control condition, which was not evident in the green exercise condition (r = -0.07, p = 0.55). Contrary to previous studies in adults, green exercise did not produce significantly greater increases in self-esteem than the urban exercise condition. Green exercise was enjoyed more equally by children with differing levels of habitual physical activity and has the potential to engage less active children in exercise. © 2013 Reed et al

Alternative Systems of Inquiry for a Sustainable Agriculture

Summary Scientific investigation has long been dominated by positivism, which holds that an independent reality driven by immutable laws exists. Consequently, it should be possible to define sustainability in absolute terms. Advances in alternative paradigms, however, suggest: that any attempt precisely to define sustainability is flawed; that problems are always open to interpretation; that the resolution of one problem inevitably leads to the production of another ‘problem?situation’, as problems are endemic; that the key feature now becomes the capacity of actors continually to learn about these changing conditions, so that they can act rapidly to transform existing activities; and that systems of learning and inquiry are needed to seek the multiple perspectives of the various stakeholders and encourage wider involvement and action. These systems of inquiry are participatory in nature, and the information and action arising from them is judged by a framework of trustworthiness criteria. Resumé Les systèmes de renseignement alternatifs pour l'agriculture durable Depuis longtemps, l'enquête scientifique se trouve dominée par le positivisme, qui maintient l'existence d'une réalité indépendante mue par des lois ellesmêmes immuables. Par conséquent, il devrait être possible de définir la durabilité dans des termes absolus. Toutefois, les progrès au niveau des paradigmes alternatifs auraient tendance à suggérer, d'abord, que toute tentative de définir la durabilité de manière précise est à priori fausse; ensuite, que tout problème est capable d'interprétations différentes; que la solution d'un problème mène inéluctablement à la production de situations problématiques, étant donné que les problèmes sont endémiques; que le facteur primordial est désormais, la capacité des acteurs à apprendre continûment quelles sont ces situations changeantes, de sorte qu'ils puissent agir rapidement pour transformer les activités existantes; et que la mise en place de systèmes d'enquête et d'acquisition des connaissances sont nécessaires afin que l'on puisse interroger les nombreuses perspectives des divers participants et par là, encourager une participation plus grande et plus active. Ces systèmes d'enquète sont intrinsèquement participatoires, aussi l'information et l'action qui en découlent doiventelles être jugées dans le cadre d'un ensemble de critères de fiabilité. Resumen Sistemas alternativos de investigación para una agricultura sostenible La investigación científica ha sido dominada durante mucho tiempo por el positivismo, que mantiene la existencia de una realidad independiente manejada por leyes inmutables. Consecuentemente, debe ser posible definir el mantenimiento en términos absolutos. Sin embargo, el avance de paradigmas alternativos sugiere: a) cualquier intento de definir la sostenibilidad con precisión es defectuoso; b) los problemas siempre están abiertos a la interpretación; c) la solución de un problema inevitablemente lleva a la producción de otra situación problemática, ya que los problemas son endémicos; d) el rasgo clave es la capacidad de los protagonistas para aprender continuamente de estas condiciónes cambiantes, y poder actuar rápidamente en la transformación de las actividades existentes; y e) se necesitan sistemas de averiguación y aprendizaje para registrar las múltiples perspectivas de las varias partes interesadas y estimular un compromiso y una acción mas emplios. Estos sistemas de averiguación son de por sí participatorios, y la información y acción que de ellos surgen son juzgadas por un conjunto de criterios de fiabilidad

Walks4work: Rationale and study design to investigate walking at lunchtime in the workplace setting

Background: Following recruitment of a private sector company, an 8week lunchtime walking intervention was implemented to examine the effect of the intervention on modifiable cardiovascular disease risk factors, and further to see if walking environment had any further effect on the cardiovascular disease risk factors. Methods. For phase 1 of the study participants were divided into three groups, two lunchtime walking intervention groups to walk around either an urban or natural environment twice a week during their lunch break over an 8week period. The third group was a waiting-list control who would be invited to join the walking groups after phase 1. In phase 2 all participants were encouraged to walk during their lunch break on self-selecting routes. Health checks were completed at baseline, end of phase 1 and end of phase 2 in order to measure the impact of the intervention on cardiovascular disease risk. The primary outcome variables of heart rate and heart rate variability were measured to assess autonomic function associated with cardiovascular disease. Secondary outcome variables (Body mass index, blood pressure, fitness, autonomic response to a stressor) related to cardiovascular disease were also measured. The efficacy of the intervention in increasing physical activity was objectively monitored throughout the 8-weeks using an accelerometer device. Discussion. The results of this study will help in developing interventions with low researcher input with high participant output that may be implemented in the workplace. If effective, this study will highlight the contribution that natural environments can make in the reduction of modifiable cardiovascular disease risk factors within the workplace. © 2012 Brown et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd

The roles and values of wild foods in agricultural systems

Almost every ecosystem has been amended so that plants and animals can be used as food, fibre, fodder, medicines, traps and weapons. Historically, wild plants and animals were sole dietary components for hunter–gatherer and forager cultures. Today, they remain key to many agricultural communities. The mean use of wild foods by agricultural and forager communities in 22 countries of Asia and Africa (36 studies) is 90–100 species per location. Aggregate country estimates can reach 300–800 species (e.g. India, Ethiopia, Kenya). The mean use of wild species is 120 per community for indigenous communities in both industrialized and developing countries. Many of these wild foods are actively managed, suggesting there is a false dichotomy around ideas of the agricultural and the wild: hunter–gatherers and foragers farm and manage their environments, and cultivators use many wild plants and animals. Yet, provision of and access to these sources of food may be declining as natural habitats come under increasing pressure from development, conservation-exclusions and agricultural expansion. Despite their value, wild foods are excluded from official statistics on economic values of natural resources. It is clear that wild plants and animals continue to form a significant proportion of the global food basket, and while a variety of social and ecological drivers are acting to reduce wild food use, their importance may be set to grow as pressures on agricultural productivity increase.</jats:p

Nature-Based Interventions for Improving Health and Wellbeing : The Purpose, the People and the Outcomes

Engagement with nature is an important part of many people's lives, and the health and wellbeing benefits of nature-based activities are becoming increasingly recognised across disciplines from city planning to medicine. Despite this, urbanisation, challenges of modern life and environmental degradation are leading to a reduction in both the quantity and the quality of nature experiences. Nature-based health interventions (NBIs) can facilitate behavioural change through a somewhat structured promotion of nature-based experiences and, in doing so, promote improved physical, mental and social health and wellbeing. We conducted a Delphi expert elicitation process with 19 experts from seven countries (all named authors on this paper) to identify the different forms that such interventions take, the potential health outcomes and the target beneficiaries. In total, 27 NBIs were identified, aiming to prevent illness, promote wellbeing and treat specific physical, mental or social health and wellbeing conditions. These interventions were broadly categorized into those that change the environment in which people live, work, learn, recreate or heal (for example, the provision of gardens in hospitals or parks in cities) and those that change behaviour (for example, engaging people through organized programmes or other activities). We also noted the range of factors (such as socioeconomic variation) that will inevitably influence the extent to which these interventions succeed. We conclude with a call for research to identify the drivers influencing the effectiveness of NBIs in enhancing health and wellbeing.Peer reviewe

The Top 100 questions for the sustainable intensification of agriculture in India’s rainfed drylands

India has the largest area of rainfed dryland agriculture globally, with a variety of distinct types of farming systems producing most of its coarse cereals, food legumes, minor millets, and large amounts of livestock. All these are vital for national and regional food and nutritional security. Yet, the rainfed drylands have been relatively neglected in mainstream agricultural and rural development policy. As a result, significant social-ecological challenges overlap in these landscapes: endemic poverty, malnutrition and land degradation. Sustainable intensification of dryland agriculture is essential for helping to address these challenges, particularly in the context of accelerating climate change. In this paper, we present 100 questions that point to the most important knowledge gaps and research priorities. If addressed, these would facilitate and inform sustainable intensification in Indian rainfed drylands, leading to improved agricultural production and enhanced ecosystem services. The horizon scanning method used to produce these questions brought together experts and practitioners involved in a broad range of disciplines and sectors. This exercise resulted in a consolidated set of questions covering the agricultural drylands, organized into 13 themes. Together, these represent a collective programme for new cross- and multi-disciplinary research on sustainable intensification in the Indian rainfed drylands