102 research outputs found

    Costs of mate-guarding in wild male long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis)

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    In vielen promisken Paarungssystemen konkurrieren die MĂ€nnchen einer Gruppe um den Zugang zu fertilen Weibchen. Um es Rivalen zu erschweren, haben sie verschiedene Paarungstaktiken entwickelt. Eine von Vertebraten und Invertebraten oft genutzte Strategie ist das „mate-guarding“. Hier bewacht ein hochrangiges MĂ€nnchen das fertile Weibchen indem es stĂ€ndig in dessen NĂ€he bleibt, wodurch es den Zugang der anderen MĂ€nnchen stark minimiert. Durch diese Monopolisierung des Weibchens erhöht ein MĂ€nnchen seinen Reproduktionserfolg und damit zusĂ€tzlich die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Vaterschaft. Diese fĂŒr das MĂ€nnchen gewinnbringende Strategie birgt jedoch auch energetische Kosten. Solche negativen VerknĂŒpfungen zwischen Kosten und Gewinn, sogenannte „trade-offs“, beeinflussen den Fortpflanzungserfolg ebenso wie die Körperkondition und die Überlebenschance eines MĂ€nnchens. Haben solche Kosten beispielsweise eine Verschlechterung der körperlichen Verfassung zur Folge, kann sich das negativ auf die FĂ€higkeiten der MĂ€nnchen, ein Weibchen zu monopolisieren, auswirken und damit den Vaterschaftserfolg der MĂ€nnchen mindern. Die mit solch einer Paarungstaktik wie dem „mate-guarding“ einhergehenden Kosten könnten sich auch auf die Entstehung von Strategien zur Partnerwahl bei den MĂ€nnchen auswirken: MĂ€nnchen sollten ihre Energie vor allem auf die Reproduktion mit den fittesten Weibchen aufwenden. Um die grundlegenden Faktoren der Partnerwahl sowie die Verteilung des Reproduktionserfolges unter den MĂ€nnchen („reproductive skew“) besser zu verstehen, mĂŒssen die bei der Monopolisierung des Weibchens entstehenden Kosten quantifiziert werden. Primaten sind ein interessantes Taxa um diese Fragen zu untersuchen, da viele Arten in stabilen Mehr-MĂ€nnchen-Gruppen leben und „mate-guarding“ eine vorteilhafte Taktik ist, die oft von hochrangigen MĂ€nnchen angewandt wird. Allerdings haben sich bisherige Studien an Primaten auf die Quantifizierung der Futterkosten beschrĂ€nkt und die Ergebnisse sind bisher sehr widersprĂŒchlich. Unser VerstĂ€ndnis dieser Kosten wird weiterhin durch das Fehlen eines zuverlĂ€ssigen, nicht-invasiven physiologischen Markers, der den energetischen Zustand von Nicht-Menschenaffen misst, beeintrĂ€chtigt. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, die Kosten des „mate-guarding“ in einer Primatenart, die in Mehr-MĂ€nnchen-Gruppen lebt wie die Javaneraffen (Macaca fascicularis), zu quantifizieren. Bisherige Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Alpha-MĂ€nnchen dieser Primatenart ihre Weibchen weniger monopolisieren als das „Priority of Access-Model“ vorhersagt. Der Monopolisierungserfolg scheint demnach durch die Kosten, die den MĂ€nnchen durch das „mate-guarding“ entstehen, limitiert zu sein. In Studie 1 der vorliegenden Arbeit habe ich die Eignung von Urin C-Peptiden (UCP, ein Nebenprodukt der Insulinproduktion), als Marker fĂŒr den Energiestatus von MakakenmĂ€nnchen, evaluiert. In Studie 2 und 3 quantifizierte ich die energetischen, physiologischen und physischen (z.B. Aggression) Kosten des „mate-guardings“. In der vierten Studie untersuchte ich den Einfluss der QualitĂ€t der Weibchen auf die Kosten der des „mate-guardings“ und die Investition der MĂ€nnchen in dieses Verhalten. Als erstes betrachtete ich den Zusammenhang zwischen den UCP Werten und Indikatoren fĂŒr den Zustand der körperlichen Verfassung bei frei- und in Gefangenschaft lebender Makaken, um UCP als zuverlĂ€ssigen Marker fĂŒr Energiestatus (Studie 1) zu validieren. Die UCP Level waren positiv korreliert mit dem BMI (Body-Mass-Index) sowie mit dem Fettgehalt einer Hautfalte. In einem Experiment, bei dem die Futterzufuhr reduziert wurde, stellte sich heraus, dass UCP Level mit Änderungen des BMI und der geminderten Futterzufuhr kovariiert. Demzufolge ist UCP ein nĂŒtzlicher Marker um nicht-invasiv intra- und interindividuelle VerĂ€nderungen der Körperkondition und des ErnĂ€hrungszustandes zu ermitteln. FĂŒr die weitere Fragestellung beobachtete ich drei freilebende Javaneraffengruppen wĂ€hrend zwei Paarungsperioden, in Ketambe, Gunung Leuser National Park in Indonesien. Um ein möglichst umfassendes Bild der potentiellen Kosten des „mate-guarding“ bereitzustellen, kombinierte ich zum einen meine durchgefĂŒhrten Verhaltensbeobachtungen der MĂ€nnchen, den Aufenthalt der MĂ€nnchen in den BĂ€umen und sexuelle Interaktionen der MĂ€nnchen mit den Weibchen. Zum anderen ermittelte ich GPS-Daten der Wanderungsdistanz, non-invasive Indikatoren fĂŒr physiologischen Stress (faecal glucocorticoid, fGC), den Energiestatus (UCP) und bewertete die VerfĂŒgbarkeit von FrĂŒchten. Insgesamt konnten 2088 Fokusstunden, 331 Urin- und 771 Kotproben gesammelt und analysiert werden. Zudem wurden jeden Monat 360 FruchtbĂ€ume begutachtet. In Studie 2 konnte ich zeigen, dass „mate-guarding“ die Parameter der Energieaufnahme und des Energieverbrauches reduziert. Dies hatte jedoch keine signifikanten Auswirkungen auf den gesamten Energiestatus (UCP Level) eines MĂ€nnchens. Dieses Ergebnis weist auf ein ausbalanciertes VerhĂ€ltnis von Energieaufnahme und Energieverbrauch der MĂ€nnchen wĂ€hrend des „mate-guardings“ hin. In Studie 3 konnte ich nachweisen, dass die MĂ€nnchen wĂ€hrend des „mate-guardings“, höhere fGC Werte aufwiesen. Dieser Wert wurde jedoch durch die Zeit, die MĂ€nnchen in Vigilanz investieren, moduliert. „Mate-guarding” erhöhte einerseits die Vigilanzzeit eines MĂ€nnchens und andererseits auch die Aggressionsrate der MĂ€nnchen. Alpha-MĂ€nnchen waren das ganze Jahr ĂŒber gestresster als andere MĂ€nnchen, unabhĂ€ngig von Paarungskonkurrenz. Dies suggeriert, dass erhöhte Glucocorticoidlevel wĂ€hrend des „mate-guarding“ den MĂ€nnchen helfen ihre energetische Homöostase aufrechtzuerhalten, jedoch könnte dies Langzeitkosten darstellen, die bei lang anhaltender Belastung zu chronischem Stress fĂŒhren können. Die Kombination dieser physiologischer Kosten und dem Verletzungsrisiko, dass mit Aggressionen einhergeht, könnte die Möglichkeit eines AlphamĂ€nnchens ein Weibchen zu monopolisieren minimieren und damit auch Einfluss auf die Verteilung des Reproduktionserfolges der MĂ€nnchen in einer Gruppe haben. In Studie 4 konnte ich zeigen, dass mĂ€nnliche Javaneraffen einige der Kosten des „mate-guarding“ reduzieren können indem sie gezielt Weibchen mit hohem reproduktiven Wert bewachen, da sie dann geringere fGC Werte haben. DarĂŒber hinaus passten MĂ€nnchen ihre Investition in „mate-guarding“ an, indem sie aufmerksamer und aggressiver waren wenn sie hochrangige Weibchen oder Weibchen mit denen sie starke Bindungen formten, bewachten. Diese Ergebnisse bestĂ€tigen, dass MĂ€nnchen nicht nur hochwertige Weibchen auswĂ€hlen, sondern diese auch lĂ€nger und besser monopolisieren. In meiner Arbeit konnte ich die Kosten, die „mate-guarding“ fĂŒr die MĂ€nnchen einer Primatenart mit sich bringt, aufzeigen und hervorheben wie diese Kosten die Verteilung des Reproduktionserfolges unter den MĂ€nnchen in der Gruppe beeinflusst. Auf Grundlage meiner Ergebnisse schlage ich vor, dass mĂ€nnliche Javaneraffen eine „unvollstĂ€ndige Weibchenmonopolisierungs-Strategie“ entwickelt haben, bei der sie die Kosten des „mate-guarding“ reduzieren indem sie Weibchen selektiv nach deren ReproduktionsqualitĂ€t wĂ€hlen und Weibchen mit geringerer QualitĂ€t weniger grĂŒndlich monopolisieren. Diese unvollstĂ€ndige Weibchenmonopolisierung könnte eine entscheidende Komponente des Energiemanagements von AlphamĂ€nnchen sein, die ihnen erlaubt ganzjĂ€hrig adĂ€quat auf versuchte RangĂŒbernahmen zu reagieren und somit ihre Amtszeit zu verlĂ€ngern und die damit einhergehenden Fitnessvorteile zu erhalten. Beim Vergleich meiner Ergebnisse mit anderen SĂ€ugetier-Taxa, diskutiere ich in meiner Arbeit weiterhin die Beziehung zwischen den Kosten des „mate-guarding“ und der Verteilung des Reproduktionserfolges der MĂ€nnchen in der Gruppe, die durch 1) reproduktive SaisonalitĂ€t, 2) Energie-Management-Strategien der MĂ€nnchen, 3) Errungenschaft eines hohen Ranges in der Gruppe und 4) der Sozialstruktur, moduliert sein kann. ZukĂŒnftige Studien, die die Kosten der Paarungstaktiken der MĂ€nnchen untersuchen, sollten die KomplexitĂ€t des Reproduktionsaufwandes, den MĂ€nnchen investieren, bedenken. Diese Investitionen scheinen nicht ausschließlich auf die reproduktive Phase im Jahr beschrĂ€nkt zu sein, sondern können sich ĂŒber das ganze Jahr verteilen und spiegeln sich in Form der Konkurrenz zwischen MĂ€nnchen in Bezug auf Rangstatus und sozialen Interaktionen wider

    Costs of and investment in mate-guarding in wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis): Influences of female characteristics and male–female social bonds

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    Male primates living in multimale groups tend to direct mate and mate-guarding choices toward females of high reproductive value, i.e., high-ranking, parous females, or females with which they share strong bonds. Little is known, however, about the constraints that may limit male mate-guarding choices (the costs of this behavior) and the influence of the females’ quality on male investment in mate-guarding. We aimed to study the effects of female rank, parity status, and male–female social bond strength on the costs of and investment in mate-guarding by males. We carried out our study during two reproductive seasons on three groups of wild long-tailed macaques in Indonesia. We combined behavioral observations on male locomotion and activity with noninvasive measurements of fecal glucocorticoids (fGC). Males spent less time feeding when mate-guarding nulliparous females than when mate-guarding parous females and tended to have higher fGC levels when mate-guarding low-ranking nulliparous females than when mate-guarding high-ranking nulliparous ones. Evolution should thus favor male choice for high-ranking parous females because such a decision brings benefits at proximate (reduced costs of mate-guarding) and ultimate (higher reproductive value) levels. Further, male investment in mate-guarding was flexible and contingent on female reproductive and social value. Males were more vigilant and more aggressive toward other males when mate-guarding females to which they were strongly bonded and/or high-ranking ones than when mate-guarding other females. Our findings bring a new dimension to the study of mate choice by showing that males not only mate preferentially with high-quality females but may also aim to secure paternity with these females through optimized monopolization

    Costs of mate-guarding in wild male long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis): Physiological stress and aggression

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    AbstractMate-guarding is an important determinant of male reproductive success in a number of species. However, it is known to potentially incur costs. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of mate-guarding on male physiological stress and aggression in long-tailed macaques, a species in which males mate-guard females to a lesser extent than predicted by the Priority of Access model (PoA). The study was carried out during two mating periods on three groups of wild long-tailed macaques in Indonesia by combining behavioral observations with non-invasive measurements of fecal glucocorticoid (fGC) levels. Mate-guarding was associated with a general rise in male stress hormone levels but, from a certain threshold of mate-guarding onwards, increased vigilance time was associated with a decrease in stress hormone output. Mate-guarding also increased male-male aggression rate and male vigilance time. Overall, alpha males were more physiologically stressed than other males independently of mating competition. Increased glucocorticoid levels during mate-guarding are most likely adaptive since it may help males to mobilize extra-energy required for mate-guarding and ultimately maintain a balanced energetic status. However, repeated exposure to high levels of stress over an extended period is potentially deleterious to the immune system and thus may carry costs. This potential physiological cost together with the cost of increased aggression mate-guarding male face may limit the male’s ability to mate-guard females, explaining the deviance from the PoA model observed in long-tailed macaques. Comparing our results to previous findings we discuss how ecological factors, reproductive seasonality and rank achievement may modulate the extent to which costs of mate-guarding limit male monopolization abilities

    Chimpanzees produce diverse vocal sequences with ordered and recombinatorial properties

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    The origins of human language remains a major question in evolutionary science. Unique to human language is the capacity to flexibly recombine a limited sound set into words and hierarchical sequences, generating endlessly new sentences. In contrast, sequence production of other animals appears limited, stunting meaning generation potential. However, studies have rarely quantified flexibility and structure of vocal sequence production across the whole repertoire. Here, we used such an approach to examine the structure of vocal sequences in chimpanzees, known to combine calls used singly into longer sequences. Focusing on the structure of vocal sequences, we analysed 4826 recordings of 46 wild adult chimpanzees from TaĂŻ National Park. Chimpanzees produced 390 unique vocal sequences. Most vocal units emitted singly were also emitted in two-unit sequences (bigrams), which in turn were embedded into three-unit sequences (trigrams). Bigrams showed positional and transitional regularities within trigrams with certain bigrams predictably occurring in either head or tail positions in trigrams, and predictably co-occurring with specific other units. From a purely structural perspective, the capacity to organize single units into structured sequences offers a versatile system potentially suitable for expansive meaning generation. Further research must show to what extent these structural sequences signal predictable meanings

    Chimpanzee vowel-like sounds and voice quality suggest formant space expansion through the hominoid lineage

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    The origins of human speech are obscure; it is still unclear what aspects are unique to our species or shared with our evolutionary cousins, in part due to a lack of common framework for comparison. We asked what chimpanzee and human vocal production acoustics have in common. We examined visible supra-laryngeal articulators of four major chimpanzee vocalizations (hoos, grunts, barks, screams) and their associated acoustic structures, using techniques from human phonetic and animal communication analysis. Data were collected from wild adult chimpanzees, Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Both discriminant and principal component classification procedures revealed classification of call types. Discriminating acoustic features include voice quality and formant structure, mirroring phonetic features in human speech. Chimpanzee lip and jaw articulation variables also offered similar discrimination of call types. Formant maps distinguished call types with different vowel-like sounds. Comparing our results with published primate data, humans show less F1–F2 correlation and further expansion of the vowel space, particularly for [i] sounds. Unlike recent studies suggesting monkeys achieve human vowel space, we conclude from our results that supra-laryngeal articulatory capacities show moderate evolutionary change, with vowel space expansion continuing through hominoid evolution. Studies on more primate species will be required to substantiate this.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Voice modulation: from origin and mechanism to social impact (Part II)’

    Variable use of polyadic grooming and its effect on access to social partners in wild chimpanzees and bonobos

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    In mammals, allogrooming is prominent in forming and maintaining social and cooperative relationships. Yet an animal's social time is constrained, which may limit its access to a large number of partners. Dunbar (1993, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16 (4), 681–694) proposed that human polyadic conversations, which allow access to several social partners simultaneously, evolved as a form of social grooming to circumvent this time constraint. In nonhuman primates, polyadic grooming (PG), in contrast to dyadic grooming, may similarly be a time-efficient way to maintain weak social relationships with many partners which can be important for group level cooperation. It remains unknown whether PG is used to fulfil specific cooperative needs by accessing numerous weakly bonded partners and increasing the number of partners accessed per unit of time. We compared the use and effect of PG between chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, which are highly territorial and collaborative (especially males), and bonobos, Pan paniscus, which are less territorial and collaborative and in which females are the main co-operators. We carried out focal grooming observations in one bonobo and two chimpanzee communities in the wild. As predicted, chimpanzees engaged in more PG than bonobos. Surprisingly, males engaged in PG more than females in both species. While chimpanzees accessed more partners per minute of grooming than bonobos via dyadic grooming, PG increased the number of partners accessed per minute only in bonobos. Finally, chimpanzees primarily used PG with individuals who were close in rank and frequent grooming partners, whereas bonobos used PG with individuals who were distant in rank, close party associates and frequent grooming partners. We suggest that bonobo males use PG to enhance conspecific social tolerance and mate choice. The overall higher rate of PG in chimpanzees suggests that between-group competition may promote polyadic affiliation, which possibly reinforces group cohesion and coordination. © 2020 The Author

    Population-specific call order in chimpanzee greeting vocal sequences

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    This study was funded by the Max Planck Society and the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program awarded to C.C. (grant agreement no. 679787) and ERC (Prilang GA283871) and by Leverhulme Trust Research Leadership Award. Core funding for the Taï Chimpanzee Project has been provided by the Max Planck Society since 1997 and for Budongo Conservation Field station by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland.Primates rarely learn new vocalisations, but they can learn to use their vocalizations in different contexts. Such ‘vocal usage learning’, particularly in vocal sequences, is a hallmark of human language, but remains understudied in non-human primates. We assess usage learning in four wild chimpanzee communities of Taï and Budongo Forests by investigating population differences in call ordering of a greeting vocal sequence. Whilst in all groups, these sequences consisted of pant-hoots (long-distance contact call) and pant-grunts (short-distance submissive call), the order of the two calls differed across populations. Taï chimpanzees consistently commenced greetings with pant-hoots whereas Budongo chimpanzees started with pant-grunts. We discuss different hypotheses to explain this pattern and conclude that higher intra-group aggression in Budongo may have led to a local pattern of individuals signalling submission first. This highlights how within-species variation in social dynamics may lead to flexibility in call order production, possibly acquired via usage learning.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

    Sourcing high tissue quality brains from deceased wild primates with known socio-ecology

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    1. The selection pressures that drove dramatic encephalisation processes through the mammal lineage remain elusive, as does knowledge of brain structure reorganisation through this process. In particular, considerable structural brain changes are present across the primate lineage, culminating in the complex human brain that allows for unique behaviours such as language and sophisticated tool use. To understand this evolution, a diverse sample set of humans' closest relatives with varying socio-ecologies is needed. However, current brain banks predominantly curate brains from primates that died in zoological gardens. We try to address this gap by establishing a field pipeline mitigating the challenges associated with brain extractions of wild primates in their natural habitat. 2. The success of our approach is demonstrated by our ability to acquire a novel brain sample of deceased primates with highly variable socio-ecological exposure and a particular focus on wild chimpanzees. Methods in acquiring brain tissue from wild settings are comprehensively explained, highlighting the feasibility of conducting brain extraction procedures under strict biosafety measures by trained veterinarians in field sites. 3. Brains are assessed at a fine-structural level via high-resolution MRI and state-of-the-art histology. Analyses confirm that excellent tissue quality of primate brains sourced in the field can be achieved with a comparable tissue quality of brains acquired from zoo-living primates. 4. Our field methods are noninvasive, here defined as not harming living animals, and may be applied to other mammal systems than primates. In sum, the field protocol and methodological pipeline validated here pose a major advance for assessing the influence of socio-ecology on medium to large mammal brains, at both macro- and microstructural levels as well as aiding with the functional annotation of brain regions and neuronal pathways via specific behaviour assessments

    Androgen correlates of male reproductive effort in wild male long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis): A multi-level test of the challenge hypothesis.

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    The challenge hypothesis (Wingfield et al., 1990) has been broadly utilised as a conceptual framework to study male androgen correlates of reproductive challenges in mammals. These studies mainly assessed male androgen responsiveness to a general degree of challenge over extended periods of time. Short term co-variation between the socio-sexual challenging context and androgen levels remains, however, largely understudied. We thus aim at providing a multi-level test of the challenge hypothesis by investigating the inter- and intra-individual variations in faecal androgen excretion associated to 1) breeding seasonality, 2) dominance rank, 3) mate-guarding activity and 4) value of the guarded female. We studied long-tailed macaques, a species in which males engage in highly challenging monopolisation of females over discreet periods of time. This particularity allows testing specifically the predicted increase from level B to level C in the challenge hypothesis. The study was carried out during two reproductive seasons on three groups of wild long-tailed macaques. We combined behavioural observations and non-invasive measurements of faecal androgen metabolite (fAM) levels. We found that, as predicted by the challenge hypothesis, male long-tailed macaques respond not only to seasonal but also to short term reproductive challenges by adapting their androgen levels. First, males exhibited a seasonal rise in fAM levels during the mating period which may be triggered by fruit availability as shown by our phenological data. Second, males had increased androgen levels when mate-guarding females and, across mate-guarding periods, males had higher fAM levels when monopolising high-ranking parous females than when monopolising low-ranking ones. Finally, high-ranking males had higher fAM levels than low-ranking males year round. Our study confirms that, in species with a high degree of female monopolisability, androgen may be an important physiological fitness enhancing tool for males by increasing female monopolisation efficiency (in particular with highly valuable females) and helping males to respond to rank take-over challenges
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