Сохранение количественной семантики морфологических единиц в переводе на украинский язык

У статті розглянуто засоби вираження поняття кількості на морфологічному рівні, досліджено вживання мовних морфологічних засобів реалізації поняття кількості, проаналізовано способи перекладу, спрямовані на збереження кількісної семантики.The article considers means of quantity expression at the morphological level; the use of morphological means of quantity expression is investigated, the ways of translation aimed at quantitative meaning preservation are analyzed.В статье рассмотрены средства выражения понятия количества на морфологическом уровне, исследовано употребление языковых морфологических средств реализации понятия количества, проанализированы способы перевода, направленные на сохранение количественной семантики

Язык и мысль

У статті розглядається проблема взаємозв’язку мови та мовлення, яка завжди становила значний інтерес для філософів та мовознавців оскільки перша – немислима без останньої, а відтак мова та думка – нероздільні. Хоча питання взаємозв’язку мови та думки вивчалося багатьма лінгвістами, загально прийнятого підходу до визначення проблеми їх взаємозалежності та взаємопроникнення не існує. Один підхід розглядає “мову як думку, а думку як мову” (М. Мюллер), а другий, що є об’єктом фокусу статті, покладається на визначення відмінностей між ними не дивлячись на те, що за цього підходу мова та думка розглядаються такими, що утворюють єдине органічне ціле. У статті розглянуто ряд статей видатних лінгвістів, що стосуються актуалізації думки. Було розглянуто та проаналізовано питання взаємозв’язків типу “мова – досвід” та ”мова – культура”, а також їх відношення до предмету статті. Відношення типу “мова – досвід” має неабияке значення, оскільки досвід є основою формування знань, а отже, культури та слів, що входять до складу класів мови. Оскільки кожне слово входить до певного класу мови, його значення певним чином стосується досвіду, який цей клас позначає. Назва класу також загальна та стосується всіх його складових. Накопичені знання та досвід передаються за допомогою слів: шляхом актуалізації одиницями мови. Досвід та знання повністю актуалізуються у корпусі слів тоді, коли вони сполучаються з іншими словами та формують смислові повнозначні конструкти, що перетворює мову у засіб комунікації. Оскільки комунікація може набувати вербальної та невербальної форми, вона – нерівнозначна мові. Однак, мова та комунікація володіють рядом спільних рис, описаних у статті.The article is aimed at the problem of language-thought interrelation which has always been of great interest to philosophers and linguists as the former is inconceivable without the latter; thus, language and thought are inseparable. Although the question of language-thought interconnection has been studied by many linguists, there is no generally accepted approach to the distinction of their interdependence and convergence. One approach to the problem, for instance, relies on regarding “language as thought and thought as language” (M. Müller), the other approach, which the article is focused on, consists in underlying their inequality even though they form organic unity (A.Potebnya). Scientific works of distinguished linguists about thought objectification have been investigated. The issues of language-experience and language-culture interrelation as well as their correspondence to the subject of the article have been analyzed. Relation of the first type is of primary significance since experience is fundamental to formation of knowledge and, therefore, culture as well as words that constitute language classes. Being component part of a specific language class each word possesses the meaning somehow connected with the type of experience the class describes; the name of the class is also general and applicable to each of its constituents. Accumulated knowledge and experience are shared by means of words, i.e. objectified in language units. Full objectification is only possible when words are combined together into meaningfully complete patterns, which makes language a communication tool. As communication may be of verbal and non-verbal forms, it cannot equate with language; however, human language and communication share common properties which are described by the article.В статье рассматривается проблема взаимосвязи языка и речи, которая всегда составляла значительный интерес для философов и языковедов поскольку первая – немыслима без последней, следовательно, язык и мысль – неразделимы. Хотя вопрос взаимосвязи языка и мысли изучался многими лингвистами, общепринятого подхода к определению проблемы их взаимозависимости и взаимопроникновения не существует. Один подход рассматривает «язык как мысль, а мысль как язык» (М. Мюллер), а второй, являющийся объектом фокуса статьи, полагается на определение различий между ними. Были рассмотрены и проанализированы вопросы взаимосвязей типа «язык – опыт» и «язык – культура», а также их отношение к предмету статьи. Накопленные знания и опыт передаются с помощью слов: путем актуализации единицами языка. Опыт и знания полностью актуализируются в корпусе слов тогда, когда они сочетаются с другими словами и формируют смысловые знаменательные конструкты, превращающие язык в средство коммуникации. Поскольку коммуникация может принимать вербальную и невербальную форму, она – неравнозначна языку. Однако, язык и коммуникация обладают рядом общих особенностей, описанных в статье

Bacterial Stress Responses: What Doesn't Kill Them Can Make Them Stronger

Identifying specific mechanisms that contribute to microbial survival under rapidly changing conditions could provide insight into stress response systems across life forms

The bacterial stressosome:a modular system that has been adapted to control secondary messenger signaling

SummaryThe stressosome complex regulates downstream effectors in response to environmental signals. In Bacillus subtilis, it activates the alternative sigma factor σB, leading to the upregulation of the general stress regulon. Herein, we characterize a stressosome-regulated biochemical pathway in Moorella thermoacetica. We show that the presumed sensor, MtR, and the scaffold, MtS, form a pseudo-icosahedral structure like that observed in B. subtilis. The N-terminal domain of MtR is structurally homologous to B. subtilis RsbR, despite low sequence identity. The affinity of the switch kinase, MtT, for MtS decreases following MtS phosphorylation and not because of structural reorganization. Dephosphorylation of MtS by the PP2C type phosphatase MtX permits the switch kinase to rebind the stressosome to reset the response. We also show that MtT regulates cyclic di-GMP biosynthesis through inhibition of a GG(D/E)EF-type diguanylate cyclase, demonstrating that secondary messenger levels are regulated by the stressosome

The cryo-electron microscopy supramolecular structure of the bacterial stressosome unveils its mechanism of activation

How the stressosome, the epicenter of the stress response in bacteria, transmits stress signals from the environment has remained elusive. The stressosome consists of multiple copies of three proteins RsbR, RsbS and RsbT, a kinase that is important for its activation. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we determined the atomic organization of the Listeria monocytogenes stressosome at 3.38 Å resolution. RsbR and RsbS are organized in a 60-protomers truncated icosahedron. A key phosphorylation site on RsbR (T209) is partially hidden by an RsbR flexible loop, whose "open" or "closed" position could modulate stressosome activity. Interaction between three glutamic acids in the N-terminal domain of RsbR and the membrane-bound mini-protein Prli42 is essential for Listeria survival to stress. Together, our data provide the atomic model of the stressosome core and highlight a loop important for stressosome activation, paving the way towards elucidating the mechanism of signal transduction by the stressosome in bacteria

Reciprocal Regulation of Cephalosporin Resistance in Enterococcus faecalis

Antibiotic-resistant enterococci are major causes of hospital-acquired infections and therefore represent a serious public health problem. One well-known risk factor for the acquisition of hospital-acquired enterococcal infections is prior therapy with broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotics. Enterococci can proliferate in patients undergoing cephalosporin therapy due to intrinsic cephalosporin resistance, a characteristic of the genus Enterococcus. However, the molecular basis for cephalosporin resistance in E. faecalis has yet to be adequately elucidated. Previously we determined that a putative Ser/Thr kinase, IreK (formerly PrkC), is required for intrinsic cephalosporin resistance in E. faecalis. Here we show that kinase activity is required for cephalosporin resistance and, further, that resistance in E. faecalis is reciprocally regulated by IreK and IreP, a PP2C-type protein phosphatase encoded immediately upstream of IreK. Mutants of two divergent lineages of E. faecalis lacking IreP exhibit remarkable hyperresistance to cephalosporins but not to antibiotics targeting other cellular processes. Further genetic analyses indicate that hyperresistance of the IreP mutant is mediated by the IreK kinase. Additionally, competition experiments reveal that hyperresistant ΔireP mutants exhibit a substantial fitness defect in the absence of antibiotics, providing an evolutionary rationale for the use of a complex signaling system to control intrinsic cephalosporin resistance. These results support a model in which IreK and IreP act antagonistically via protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation as part of a signal transduction circuit to regulate cellular adaptation to cephalosporin-induced stress

Physical and antibiotic stresses require activation of the RsbU phosphatase to induce the general stress response in Listeria monocytogenes

Among pathogenic strains of Listeria monocytogenes, the σB transcription factor has a pivotal role in the outcome of food-borne infections. This factor is activated by diverse stresses to provide general protection against multiple challenges, including those encountered during gastrointestinal passage. It also acts with the PrfA regulator to control virulence genes needed for entry into intestinal lumen cells. Environmental and nutritional signals modulate σB activity via a network that operates by the partner switching mechanism, in which protein interactions are controlled by serine phosphorylation. This network is well characterized in the related bacterium Bacillus subtilis. A key difference in Listeria is the presence of only one input phosphatase, RsbU, instead of the two found in B. subtilis. Here, we aim to determine whether this sole phosphatase is required to convey physical, antibiotic and nutritional stress signals, or if additional pathways might exist. To that end, we constructed L. monocytogenes 10403S strains bearing single-copy, σB-dependent opuCA–lacZ reporter fusions to determine the effects of an rsbU deletion under physiological conditions. All stresses tested, including acid, antibiotic, cold, ethanol, heat, osmotic and nutritional challenge, required RsbU to activate σB. This was of particular significance for cold stress activation, which occurs via a phosphatase-independent mechanism in B. subtilis. We also assayed the effects of the D80N substitution in the upstream RsbT regulator that activates RsbU. The mutant had a phenotype consistent with low and uninducible phosphatase activity, but nonetheless responded to nutritional stress. We infer that RsbU activity but not its induction is required for nutritional signalling, which would enter the network downstream from RsbU

The transcriptionally active regions in the genome of Bacillus subtilis

The majority of all genes have so far been identified and annotated systematically through in silico gene finding. Here we report the finding of 3662 strand-specific transcriptionally active regions (TARs) in the genome of Bacillus subtilis by the use of tiling arrays. We have measured the genome-wide expression during mid-exponential growth on rich (LB) and minimal (M9) medium. The identified TARs account for 77.3% of the genes as they are currently annotated and additionally we find 84 putative non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and 127 antisense transcripts. One ncRNA, ncr22, is predicted to act as a translational control on cstA and an antisense transcript was observed opposite the housekeeping sigma factor sigA. Through this work we have discovered a long conserved 3′ untranslated region (UTR) in a group of membrane-associated genes that is predicted to fold into a large and highly stable secondary structure. One of the genes having this tail is efeN, which encodes a target of the twin-arginine translocase (Tat) protein translocation system

Interaction and Modulation of Two Antagonistic Cell Wall Enzymes of Mycobacteria

Bacterial cell growth and division require coordinated cell wall hydrolysis and synthesis, allowing for the removal and expansion of cell wall material. Without proper coordination, unchecked hydrolysis can result in cell lysis. How these opposing activities are simultaneously regulated is poorly understood. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the resuscitation-promoting factor B (RpfB), a lytic transglycosylase, interacts and synergizes with Rpf-interacting protein A (RipA), an endopeptidase, to hydrolyze peptidoglycan. However, it remains unclear what governs this synergy and how it is coordinated with cell wall synthesis. Here we identify the bifunctional peptidoglycan-synthesizing enzyme, penicillin binding protein 1 (PBP1), as a RipA-interacting protein. PBP1, like RipA, localizes both at the poles and septa of dividing cells. Depletion of the ponA1 gene, encoding PBP1 in M. smegmatis, results in a severe growth defect and abnormally shaped cells, indicating that PBP1 is necessary for viability and cell wall stability. Finally, PBP1 inhibits the synergistic hydrolysis of peptidoglycan by the RipA-RpfB complex in vitro. These data reveal a post-translational mechanism for regulating cell wall hydrolysis and synthesis through protein–protein interactions between enzymes with antagonistic functions

Blue and Red Light Modulates SigB-Dependent Gene Transcription, Swimming Motility and Invasiveness in Listeria monocytogenes

Background: In a number of gram-positive bacteria, including Listeria, the general stress response is regulated by the alternative sigma factor B (SigB). Common stressors which lead to the activation of SigB and the SigB-dependent regulon are high osmolarity, acid and several more. Recently is has been shown that also blue and red light activates SigB in Bacillus subtilis. Methodology/Principal Findings: By qRT-PCR we analyzed the transcriptional response of the pathogen L. monocytogenes to blue and red light in wild type bacteria and in isogenic deletion mutants for the putative blue-light receptor Lmo0799 and the stress sigma factor SigB. It was found that both blue (455 nm) and red (625 nm) light induced the transcription of sigB and SigB-dependent genes, this induction was completely abolished in the SigB mutant. The blue-light effect was largely dependent on Lmo0799, proving that this protein is a genuine blue-light receptor. The deletion of lmo0799 enhanced the red-light effect, the underlying mechanism as well as that of SigB activation by red light remains unknown. Blue light led to an increased transcription of the internalin A/B genes and of bacterial invasiveness for Caco-2 enterocytes. Exposure to blue light also strongly inhibited swimming motility of the bacteria in a Lmo0799- and SigB-dependent manner, red light had no effect there. Conclusions/Significance: Our data established that visible, in particular blue light is an important environmental signal with an impact on gene expression and physiology of the non-phototrophic bacterium L. monocytogenes. In natural environments these effects will result in sometimes random but potentially also cyclic fluctuations of gene activity, depending on the light conditions prevailing in the respective habitat