The Proteus Effect and Gaming: The Impact of Digital Actors and Race in a Virtual Environment

Race and racial identity is a frequently discussed topic in the media today. This topic is driven by what oftentimes amounts to culture clashes, and a system that claims impartiality yet is rampant with implicit bias demonstrating favorable treatment of one race over another. An example of this favoritism resides within video game design, where over 50% of player-controlled game characters are White, and less than 40% are Black (Leonard, 2007). Leonard also wrote that Black game characters are more likely to conform to Black stereotypes (e.g. play sports, or involved in gangs) than Whites (e.g. middle class citizen or unhygienic). Minimal research exists on understanding what information a video game character, or avatar, conveys to a game player, and whether this information is platform dependent or not. Furthermore, limited information exists on what the personification of agency really means within a digital environment. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship that race may exert within video game play and, by extension, video game design in regards to the control of in-game avatars. Moreover, the goal is to determine if the Proteus effect, the central psychological theory under analysis, exists for console video game players in regards to race and skin color. Originating from the world of virtual reality, the Proteus effect emphasizes conformity to an avatar’s identity cues (Yee & Bailenson, 2007). Specifically, this study examines how the similarity or mismatch between in game avatars and the individual controlling them affects game-world behaviors. Ninety male university students comprised of 3 different races (Middle Eastern, African American, and Caucasian American) played Grand Theft Auto V (GTAV) on PlayStation 3 with an assignment of either White (Michael) or Black (Franklin) game character condition. Data were collected on a behavioral metric with two primary categories: Crime against people and crimes against property. They also completed a personality inventory (HEXACO), and performed an implicit association task to further scientific exploration of the Proteus effect. The results indicated that behavioral outcomes between the Middle-Eastern and Caucasian Americans contained significant differences, and this was regardless of their digital actor (DA) assignment. However, African American gamers had significant performance differences between the two DA conditions (White, Black); there were more crimes committed against in-game people and in-game property when playing as a White DA than when playing as a Black DA when compared against the other two groups. For the game play itself, no significant performance differences were observed between the White and Black DA conditions when collapsed across race conditions indicating that the platform selected offered equal opportunity for all gamers, and that one DA did not facilitate extra crimes above and beyond the other DA. Personality factors were controlled for through the use of the HEXACO model and demonstrated that the three faces did not significantly differ in terms of personality. However, when considering game play and crime specifically, individuals scoring high in the Honesty-Humility dimension of the personality inventory committed fewer crimes against property during their gameplay as indicated by a significant regression analysis. The Proteus effect exists for console video games, and was observed within this study because a change in self representation via the DA caused an observable change in behavior. The African American participants experimentally depicted this in that they committed significantly less crimes while playing as a Black DA than the crimes they committed while playing as a White DA that did not occur for the other two races. The significance of this finding lies in the fact that this discovery bolsters understanding of DA-man relationships, and the nature of agency within digital environments. This study also demonstrates that DAs can alter gameplay, and the gaming community needs richer designs incorporating racial inclusivity within video games

Embodying Compassion in Virtual Reality using Celebrity Avatars

OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to investigate the use of a virtual reality paradigm in facilitating self-compassion for self-critical people, embodied in compassionate or uncompassionate celebrity avatars. Specifically, the study explored if this intervention could help reduce people’s self-criticism, negative affect and fears of compassion and increase self-compassion, motivation to act compassionately and positive affect. It was predicted that embodying the avatar of a compassionate celebrity would trigger the proteus effect and thus enhance the positive outcomes of the intervention. METHOD: Forty-eight participants who scored highly on a measure of self-criticism were randomly assigned to embody either a celebrity they perceived as highly compassionate or uncompassionate. They were given psycho-educational material concerning compassion and were supported to write a compassionate script. Participants then engaged in a virtual reality scenario where, embodied as a celebrity, they gave compassion to a distressed child before a recording of this compassion was played back to them whilst re-embodied as the child. All participants completed measures of compassion, self-criticism and positive and negative affect before and after the virtual reality intervention. RESULTS: Following the intervention, participants in both conditions reported significantly reduced fears of compassion and self-criticism and significantly increased self-compassion, self-reassurance and motivation to be compassionate to themselves and others. Contrary to predictions, there was no significant difference in outcomes between participants who embodied a compassionate or uncompassionate celebrity. There was no significant change in positive and negative affect following the intervention however an insecure attachment style was predictive of experiencing less relaxed and safe/warm emotions following the compassionate scenario. CONCLUSION: The study provides promising results for the application of a virtual reality intervention in helping self-critical people cultivate compassion for themselves and reduce their fears of compassion. This area of research however is in its infancy and further studies investigating the longer-term use of the intervention in clinical populations is important. Researchers and clinicians should hold in mind that for people with attachment difficulties, the use of VR in this context should be proceeded with additional support and sensitivity. The findings suggest that the identity of the embodied avatar (compassionate or not) does not impact the positive outcomes of this intervention. Possible explanations for failure to evidence the proteus effect are discussed

Learning empathy through virtual reality : Multiple strategies for training empathy-related abilities using body ownership Illusions in embodied virtual reality

Several disciplines have investigated the interconnected empathic abilities behind the proverb “to walk a mile in someone else’s shoes” to determine how the presence, and absence, of empathy-related phenomena affect prosocial behavior and intergroup relations. Empathy enables us to learn from others’ pain and to know when to offer support. Similarly, virtual reality (VR) appears to allow individuals to step into someone else’s shoes, through a perceptual illusion called embodiment, or the body ownership illusion. Considering these perspectives, we propose a theoretical analysis of different mechanisms of empathic practices in order to define a possible framework for the design of empathic training in VR. This is not intended to be an extensive review of all types of practices, but an exploration of empathy and empathy-related phenomena. Empathy-related training practices are analyzed and categorized. We also identify different variables used by pioneer studies in VR to promote empathy-related responses. Finally, we propose strategies for using embodied VR technology to train specific empathy-related abilities

Effects of Avatar Appearance on User Perception and Behavior: Role of Labels and Cognitive Mediation in the Proteus Effect

M.A. University of Hawaii at Manoa 2016.Includes bibliographical references.Previous studies suggest avatar appearance can influence user cognition and behavior (i.e., the Proteus Effect), though the mechanism responsible is debated. This study examined whether the mechanisms proposed by two explanations of the Proteus Effect could be experimentally induced and subsequently measured via assessing user response time when rating their avatar’s traits. This study also explored whether in-game labels used to describe an avatar can bias users’ interpretations of their avatars in label- consistent ways, and potentially lead to similar changes in users’ offline behaviors. It was predicted that users generating their own evaluations of their avatars would do so more quickly than users asked to generate evaluations from the perspective of imagined others, and that users would rate their avatars in a manner stereotypically consistent with the avatar label. Participants were brought into a laboratory and played as an avatar in the desktop computer game The Sims before rating their avatar and squeezing a handgrip apparatus intended to measure potential changes in participants’ offline behavior. General support was found for the effect of label on avatar assessments; these labels biased users toward rating their avatars as having higher levels of 3 of 5 label-consistent traits. No support was found for any effect of label on users’ offline behaviors. Finally, results indicate response time may hold potential as a proxy measure for detecting the proposed mechanisms of the Proteus Effect. Implications of these results are discussed

On the Persuasive Power of Videogame avatars on Health-related behaviours

Background: Avatars are representations of the self in a virtual environment. They have been used to influence behaviour and may represent a promising avenue for designing interventions to promote health-related behaviour change. Aim: To determine the extent to which a representation of the self in a videogame influences health-related behaviours. Method: In addressing the aim of the thesis, a mixed methods approach was adopted. This started with a systematic review investigating the effectiveness of various attempts at health persuasion using avatar appearance manipulation. Next, a qualitative study investigating gamers’ avatar design preferences and experiences of playing an exergame with an idealised, self-similar avatar was conducted. The quantitative phase of the thesis involved three quantitative studies investigating the existence, ambivalence, and variance of stereotypes associated with plus-sized and athletic physiques over three modalities (text, image, video); and a replication-extension of an exergame-based Proteus Effect study involving larger-bodied and ‘average’ avatars. In this latter study, a bespoke exergame was developed that used the stimuli developed in the previous studies as avatars. Results: The systematic review (Chapter 4) revealed that a small number of studies had investigated using avatars to promote health related behaviour, and a common finding was that using larger-bodied (compared with athletic) avatars in exergames resulted in reduced physical-activity. Since this was explained in terms of stereotypical behaviours, such as laziness, being assimilated into the players’ behaviour, the qualitative study (Chapter 5) explored participants’ accounts of being restricted to an athletic avatar and found that this was not always a positive experience. To explore this further, Chapter 6 investigated the stereotype structures of plus-sized and athletic bodies were both found to suggest ambivalence. Text descriptions of prototypical ‘athletic’ groups (Chapter 6), and images of virtual humans with athletic bodies (Chapter 7) were rated as more competent, more arrogant, and less friendly compared with larger-bodied examples. Negative stereotypes, such as laziness, were reflected in evaluations of larger bodied representations, but so was the potentially positive trait of affability. In Chapter 8, larger-bodied exemplars that were animated with counter-stereotypical information (running on the spot) were rated less negatively than those that were stationary. When the exemplars were used as avatars, there was no evidence for behaviour change as a function of avatar-physique in the experimental replication study (Chapter 9). Conclusion: By using methods derived from existing social psychological theories, it is possible to create representations of larger bodies that are evaluated more positively. Further, there may be negative consequences to relying on athletic-bodied avatars to encourage exercise. Although there was no strong evidence that participants behaviour was affected by the type of avatar used, an argument can be made for allowing users to explore a broader range of physiques and presenting larger-bodied characters positively as competent agents

Utilizing the Proteus Effect to Improve Performance Using Avatars in Virtual Reality

Virtual reality allows users to experience a sense of ownership of a virtual body-a phenomenon commonly known as the body ownership illusion. Researchers and designers aim at inducing a body ownership illusion and creating embodied experiences using avatars-virtual characters that represent the user in the digital world. In accordance with the real world where humans own a body and interact via the body with the environment, avatars thereby enable users to interact with virtual worlds in a natural and intuitive fashion. Interestingly, previous work revealed that the appearance of an avatar can change the behavior, attitude, and perception of the embodying user. For example, research found that users who embodied attractive or tall avatars behaved more confidently in a virtual environment than those who embodied less attractive or smaller avatars. Alluding to the versatility of the Greek God Proteus who was said to be able to change his shape at will, this phenomenon was termed the Proteus effect. For designers and researchers of virtual reality applications, the Proteus effect is therefore an interesting and promising phenomenon to positively affect users during interaction in virtual environments. They can benefit from the limitless design space provided by virtual reality and create avatars with certain features that improve the users' interaction and performance in virtual environments. To utilize this phenomenon, it is crucial to understand how to design such avatars and their characteristics to create more effective virtual reality applications and enhanced experiences. Hence, this work explores the Proteus effect and the underlying mechanisms with the aim to learn about avatar embodiment and the design of effective avatars. This dissertation presents the results of five user studies focusing on the body ownership of avatars, and how certain characteristics can be harnessed to make users perform better in virtual environments than they would in casual embodiments. Hence, we explore methods for inducing a sensation of body ownership of avatars and learn about perceptual and physiological consequences for the real body. Furthermore, we investigate whether and how an avatar's realism and altered body structures affect the experience. This knowledge is then used to induce body ownership of avatars with features connected with high performance in physical and cognitive tasks. Hence, we aim at enhancing the users' performance in physically and cognitively demanding tasks in virtual reality. We found that muscular and athletic avatars can increase physical performance during exertion in virtual reality. We also found that an Einstein avatar can increase the cognitive performance of another user sharing the same virtual environment. This thesis concludes with design guidelines and implications for the utilization of the Proteus effect in the context of human-computer interaction and virtual reality

Avatars and computer-mediated communication: a review of the definitions, uses, and effects of digital representations

Avatars are growing in popularity and present in many interfaces used for computer-mediated communication (CMC) including social media, e-commerce, and education. Communication researchers have been investigating avatars for over twenty years, and an examination of this literature reveals similarities but also notable discrepancies in conceptual definitions. The goal of this review is to provide a general overview of current debates, methodological approaches, and trends in findings. Our review synthesizes previous research in four areas. First, we examine how scholars have conceptualized the term “avatar,” identify similarities and differences across these definitions, and recommend that scholars use the term consistently. Next, we review theoretical perspectives relevant to avatar perception (e.g., the computers as social actors framework). Then, we examine avatar characteristics that communicators use to discern the humanity and social potential of an avatar (anthropomorphism, form realism, behavioral realism, and perceived agency) and discuss implications for attributions and communication outcomes. We also review findings on the social categorization of avatars, such as when people apply categories like sex, gender, race, and ethnicity to their evaluations of digital representations. Finally, we examine research on avatar selection and design relevant to communication outcomes. Here, we review both motivations in CMC contexts (such as self-presentation and identity expression) and potential effects (e.g., persuasion). We conclude with a discussion of future directions for avatar research and propose that communication researchers consider avatars not just as a topic of study, but also as a tool for testing theories and understanding critical elements of human communication. Avatar mediated environments provide researchers with a number of advantageous technological affordances that can enable manipulations that may be difficult or inadvisable to execute in natural environments. We conclude by discussing the use of avatar research to extend communication theory and our understanding of communication processes

LEVEL UP: EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF SEXUALIZED VIDEO GAME CHARACTERS

Characters in video games, especially female characters, are often designed or depicted to be sexually attractive. These characters are sexualized by exaggerated body proportions, revealing clothing, and behavior. There are a variety of methods by which players could be impacted by these sexualized characters, including the mere exposure effect, Proteus effect, and avatar identification. The increase of video game usage and sales in recent years, specifically among the COVID-19 pandemic, brings a greater need to understand the effects of these video games. Little research currently exists on the topic, and often provides conflicting data. The current study enlisted volunteers to take self-objectification, objectification of others, and sexism inventories after playing a video game condition. The goal of this study was to discover if playing a game with a sexualized female avatar resulted in statistically significant score differences when compared to a nonsexualized and control condition