ACCESS TO JUSTICE FOR THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN JOINT IMPLEMENTATION PROJECTS UNDER THE KYOTO PROTOCOL - A Brief Study of Possible Disputes and Remedies Available to Private Participants in International Carbon Emission Reduction Projects

The Kyoto Protocol has not only created carbon emission reduction obligations for industrialized countries, but also opportunities for the private sector to participate in its "flexible mechanisms". One of these mechanisms is Joint Implementation, which allows private legal entities to engage in international emission reduction projects that generate tradable emission rights. Private parties can act as verifiers of the emission reductions achieved by such projects, or as buyers of the generated emission rights (which can be used for compliance under the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme). During the Joint Implementation project cycle, these private parties can become involved in several types of disputes with various counterparties. This paper explores the legal remedies available to such private parties. Long-term private sector investment and contribution to the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol are more likely to occur in a stable regulatory environment, which requires a certain degree of legal protection. This includes proper access to justice in case disputes arise.carbon, climate change, global warming, Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Copenhagen Accord, EU Emissions Trading Scheme, Directive 2003/87/EC, Directive 2004/101/EC, flexible mechanisms, market mechanisms, International Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation, Clean Development Mechanism, human rights, access to justice, immunity from jurisdiction, private party remedies

Pitfalls in Using Electrophysiological Studies to Diagnose Neuromuscular Disorders

Electrodiagnostic testing is used widely for the full characterization of neuromuscular disorders and for providing unique information on the processes underlying the pathology of peripheral nerves and muscles. However, such testing should be considered as an extension of anamnesis and physical examination, not as pathognomonic of a specific disease entity. There are many pitfalls that could lead to erroneous interpretation of electrophysiological study results when the studies are not performed properly or if they are performed in the presence of anatomical aberrations. The diagnostic reliability of electrodiagnostic studies can be improved and the associated pitfalls overcome if the physician is familiar with all of those possible pitfalls. In this article we discuss the most common and important pitfalls associated with electrodiagnostic medicine

Access to Justice for the Private Sector in Joint Implementation Projects under the Kyoto Protocol: A Brief Study of Possible Disputes and Remedies Available to Private Participants in International Carbon Emission Reduction Projects

The Kyoto Protocol has not only created carbon emission reduction obligations for industrialized countries, but also opportunities for the private sector to participate in its "flexible mechanisms". One of these mechanisms is Joint Implementation, which allows private legal entities to engage in international emission reduction projects that generate tradable emission rights. Private parties can act as verifiers of the emission reductions achieved by such projects, or as buyers of the generated emission rights (which can be used, e.g., for compliance under the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme). During the Joint Implementation project cycle, these private parties can become involved in several types of disputes with various counterparties. This paper explores the legal remedies available to such private parties. Long-term private sector investment and contribution to the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol are more likely to occur in a stable regulatory environment, which requires a certain degree of legal protection. This includes proper access to justice in case disputes arise

Legal Protection and (the Lack of) Private Party Remedies in International Carbon Emission Reduction Projects

The Kyoto Protocol has not only created carbon emission reduction obligations for industrialised countries, but also opportunities for the private sector to participate in its 'flexible mechanisms'. Although the outcome of the Copenhagen Climate Change Conference may not have been what the carbon market was hoping for, market parties are still hopeful that a successor treaty to the Kyoto Protocol will include similar market mechanisms. One of the current Kyoto mechanisms is 'joint implementation', which allows private legal entities to engage in international emission reduction projects that generate tradable emission rights. Private parties can act as verifiers of the emission reductions achieved by such projects, or as buyers of the generated emission rights (such buyers may include utilities, energy and mining companies, as well as banks, traders and private investors). During the joint implementation project cycle, these private parties can become involved in several types of disputes with various counte parties. This article explores the legal remedies available to such private parties. Long-term private sector investment and contribution to the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol are more likely to occur in a stable regulatory environment, which requires a certain degree of legal protection, including proper access to justice in case disputes arise. This should also be taken into account in the post-Kyoto legal framework

Large-scale phage-based screening reveals extensive pan-viral mimicry of host short linear motifs

Abstract Viruses mimic host short linear motifs (SLiMs) to hijack and deregulate cellular functions. Studies of motif-mediated interactions therefore provide insight into virus-host dependencies, and reveal targets for therapeutic intervention. Here, we describe the pan-viral discovery of 1712 SLiM-based virus-host interactions using a phage peptidome tiling the intrinsically disordered protein regions of 229 RNA viruses. We find mimicry of host SLiMs to be a ubiquitous viral strategy, reveal novel host proteins hijacked by viruses, and identify cellular pathways frequently deregulated by viral motif mimicry. Using structural and biophysical analyses, we show that viral mimicry-based interactions have similar binding strength and bound conformations as endogenous interactions. Finally, we establish polyadenylate-binding protein 1 as a potential target for broad-spectrum antiviral agent development. Our platform enables rapid discovery of mechanisms of viral interference and the identification of potential therapeutic targets which can aid in combating future epidemics and pandemics

NADPH Oxidase 1 Overexpression Enhances Invasion via Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 and Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition in Melanoma Cells

NADPH oxidase 1 (Nox1) is a member of the NADPH oxidase family that has not been well characterized in the melanocytic cell lineage. Here we demonstrated that Nox1 and Nox4 were detected in melanocytic lineage, with only Nox1 detected in normal human melanocytes and Nox4 in a subset of metastatic melanoma cell lines. The protein level and enzymatic activity of Nox1 was elevated in all melanoma cells as compared with normal melanocytes. Overexpression of GFP-Nox1 protein in Wm3211 primary melanoma cells increased invasion rate by 4- to 6-fold as measured by Matrigel invasion assay, whereas knocking down or inhibiting Nox1 decreased invasion by approximately 40-60% in Wm3211 and SK-Mel-28 cells. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) was increased by Nox1 overexpression at the mRNA, protein, and activity levels, and decreased by Nox1 knockdown. MMP-2 promoter activity was also regulated by Nox1 knockdown. In addition, stable clones overexpressing Nox1 exhibited an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as examined by cell morphology and EMT markers; knockdown or inhibiting Nox1 led to a reversal of EMT. Supplementing MMP-2 to culture media did not induce EMT, suggesting that EMT induction by Nox1 was not through MMP-2 upregulation. In summary, Nox1 was overexpressed in all melanoma cell lines examined, and enhanced cell invasion by MMP-2 upregulation and EMT induction