Australia's relations with the South Pacific - challenge and change

"It is clearly the responsibility of both national governments and donor countries to ask themselves why the region has performed at this disappointing level. I for one do not think the constraints to development which I have mentioned above, or the lack of sufficient external assistance, provide the full answer to this question. Rather, I would contend that the policy frameworks adopted in the region have often retarded the prospects for long-term sustainable economic growth. Until appropriate national policies are implemented little improvement can be expected ..." - page

Effect of low level laser therapy on gene activation, DNA damage and repair using 5 or 16 J/cm² on wounded human skin fibroblast cells

M.Tech.Low level laser therapy, commonly known as LLLT or biomodulation, is a form of phototherapy which involves the application of low power monochromatic and coherent light to injuries and lesions to stimulate healing. In the medical field, lasers are classified as high power or surgical lasers and low level lasers which are used to stimulate cellular responses. Phototherapy has been successfully used for pain attenuation and induction of wound healing in non healing defects. Even though phototherapy has been found to be beneficial in a wide variety of therapeutic applications, it has been shown that phototherapy can induce DNA damage; however this damage appears to be repairable (Houreld and Abrahamse, 2008). DNA repair is vital to cells to avoid mutation. Literature reports show that red light or phototherapy up or down regulates genes involved in DNA repair (Zhang et al., 2003). N-methylpurine DNA glycosylase (MPG) is involved in DNA repair by catalysing the excision of a variety of modified bases. The exact mechanism by which phototherapy works is still poorly understood. Several authors have demonstrated that phototherapy enhances cell proliferation and migration. However, these cellular responses seem to confuse scientists as to whether wound healing is due to cell proliferation or migration or both. To determine the effect of phototherapy on cell proliferation or migration, a mini project was conducted (Zungu et al., 2008). Thus, cell proliferation was arrested using 5 mM hydroxyurea (HU) which is an antiproliferative drug. Wounded (W) human skin fibroblast cells (WS1, ATCC iii CRL 1502) were irradiated with 5 J/cm2 using a Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser with a wavelength (λ) of 632.8 nm on day 1 and 4. Cell morphology, viability and proliferation were measured 24 h post irradiation. Reports indicate that several cell culture studies have used HU to control proliferation (Cai et al., 2000; Hamuro et al., 2002). Thereafter, the main study which was aimed at determining the effects of phototherapy on DNA damage and gene activation related to repair using 5 or 16 J/cm2 on W human skin fibroblast (WS1) cells was performed. Both studies involved growing WS1 cells aseptically in complete minimum essential medium (MEM) with Earle’s balanced salt solution and incubated at 37 °C in 5% CO2 and 85% humidity. Normal (N) and W cell cultures were irradiated with 5 or 16 J/cm2 30 min and 72 h (day 1 and 4) post wounding. Non irradiated cells (0 J/cm2) served as controls, while irradiated cells were the experimental groups. A wound was simulated by creating a central scratch across a monolayer of cells using a sterile 1 ml pipette. A 3 mW/cm2 He-Ne laser, λ 632.8 nm, was used to irradiate cells. After a repair time of 1 or 24 h on day 4, cell morphology (microscopy), cell viability (Trypan blue exclusion test and ATP luminescent assay), proliferation (XTT assay) and DNA integrity (alkaline comet assay with and without Formamidopyrimidine glycosylase [Fpg]) were assessed. The up or down regulation of the DNA repair gene, MPG, and regulation of three reference genes namely; beta Actin (ACTB), Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) and Ubiquitin c (UBC) were assessed by real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (real time RT-PCR). iv Non irradiated HU treated cells had a reduced number of cells in the central scratch compared to non irradiated non treated cells, suggesting that HU inhibited cellular proliferation. Irradiated HU treated cells showed an increased number of cells in the central scratch compared to non irradiated treated cells. This observation proved that this increase was due to the stimulatory effect of irradiation with 5 J/cm2. The addition of HU had no significant effect on cell viability. The Trypan blue exclusion test showed no significant difference in percent viability between treated and non treated cells. Irradiated non treated cells showed a significant increase in the formazan dye, which is as a result of cleavage of XTT by the mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase in actively proliferating cells, compared to non irradiated non treated cells (P=0.01). W cells, which were not irradiated, showed incomplete wound closure at both 1 and 24 h, while W cells irradiated with 5 J/cm2 showed complete wound closure. Similarly, W cells irradiated with 16 J/cm2 showed incomplete wound closure at 1 and 24 h. Cell viability, proliferation and DNA integrity assays showed that irradiated and non irradiated N cells were not significantly affected at both 1 and 24 h post irradiation. W cells (1 h) irradiated with 5 J/cm2 showed a significant increase in percentage cell viability and ATP compared to non irradiated W cells (1 h), (P=0.05 and P=0.04 respectively), while irradiation with 16 J/cm2 showed a significant decrease (P=0.014 and P=0.02 respectively). W cells (24 h) irradiated with 5 J/cm2 also showed a significant increase in percentage cell viability and ATP when compared to non irradiated W cells (24 h), (P=0.006 and P=0.04 respectively). Contrary, irradiation with 16 J/cm2 showed a significant decrease (P0.999) and PCR efficiency (94%). Conversely, other primers like GAPDH produced a low PCR efficiency (82%), while UBC produced a low R2 (0.898). Wang et al., (2006) recommends the value of R2 to be more than 0.995 and a PCR efficiency of between 90 and 100% for PCR results to be reliable. Other researchers have not supported the use of ACTB as a reference gene, stating that it is highly regulated (Wang et al., 2006), however this study showed that ACTB was not regulated by laser irradiation (632.8 nm at 5 or 16 J/cm2). The cell culture conditions and vi laser irradiation in this study did not induce MPG expression; perhaps an alternative repair pathway might have been induced, and hence repaired the DNA damage. In conclusion, the mini project demonstrated that HU is able to inhibit cell proliferation through its cytostatic effect without affecting the viability of W WS1 cells. This study also showed that irradiation of W cells with 5 J/cm2 using the correct parameters enhances cell migration and proliferation as evidenced by the presence of more cells in the central scratch in HU treated cells, and a significant increase in cell proliferation as shown by the XTT assay in non treated cells respectively. Thus, migration and proliferation are the direct result of phototherapy as both are involved in wound closure. This study further confirmed that irradiation of W cells with 5 J/cm2 stimulated ATP production, and hence cellular viability, as well as cell proliferation and migration. Irradiation of cells with higher fluences such as 16 J/cm2 is damaging to DNA and inhibitory to cell proliferation, migration and possibly to MPG expression. The study further showed that N cells are not stimulated by phototherapy, supporting the notion that lasers stimulate compromised cells. Thus, if they are growing normally there is nothing to stimulate. This understanding helps to clarify why N cells irradiated with 5 or 16 J/cm2 had insignificant responses. Cell culture conditions, fluence and duration of exposures are important parameters that can affect gene expression, and hence documentation of all experimental conditions needs to be emphasised and published if reproducibility is to be achieved

Embodied Composition: The Creation of Enriched Interactional Experiences Through Music Composition

Music is a form of embodied interaction through which people can synchronize their motor, sensory, and emotive systems. Anthropologists and developmental psychologists suggest that elements of music provide the groundwork for verbal interaction and interpersonal relationships (Aiello, 1996; Dissanayake, 2000; Mithen, 2006). When people interact with each other through music, the bases of community are formed. Phenomenological descriptions of individual’s experience of music and the role music plays in interpersonal interaction have been documented. However, there is little literature describing the embodied experiences of music composers as the architects of embodied interactions through music. Through this study, I address this topic by answering the following research questions: (1) How is composition an embodied experience? (2) How does music generate embodied interactions between composers, performers, and audience members? To answer these research questions, I interviewed five music composers (four males and one female). I analyzed these interviews using Smith’s (1996) Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Using IPA, I worked to understand and describe the participants’ embodied experiences of music composition. Through my analysis, I came across the following three themes: (1) “Composition: Creating Music through the Embodiment of Inspiration, Intuition and Craft”; (2) “From Inception to Reception: Enriched, Transcendent Interactions through Music”; and (3) “Self of Composer: Development of Musical Expression through Compositional Experience”. The descriptions of the aforementioned themes highlight several key findings. First, music composition involves the interplay of inspiration, intuition, and knowledge of music. These embodied experiences of the composer become the nexus of interactional experiences for performers and audience members. Second, music composition enriches a composer’s intrapersonal and interpersonal interactions as music provides a more direct way of conveying sensory and emotional experiences (compared to conventional interactions). Third, the composer’s embodied experiences become the nexus of community for the performers and audience members who participate in the composer’s music. This study describes the role a composer has in the embodied, interactional experiences of music. Through my analysis, the composer can be viewed as the protagonist of community—joining people together through their music in different spaces and different times

Embodied Composition: The Creation of Enriched Interactional Experiences Through Music Composition

Music is a form of embodied interaction through which people can synchronize their motor, sensory, and emotive systems. Anthropologists and developmental psychologists suggest that elements of music provide the groundwork for verbal interaction and interpersonal relationships (Aiello, 1996; Dissanayake, 2000; Mithen, 2006). When people interact with each other through music, the bases of community are formed. Phenomenological descriptions of individual’s experience of music and the role music plays in interpersonal interaction have been documented. However, there is little literature describing the embodied experiences of music composers as the architects of embodied interactions through music. Through this study, I address this topic by answering the following research questions: (1) How is composition an embodied experience? (2) How does music generate embodied interactions between composers, performers, and audience members? To answer these research questions, I interviewed five music composers (four males and one female). I analyzed these interviews using Smith’s (1996) Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Using IPA, I worked to understand and describe the participants’ embodied experiences of music composition. Through my analysis, I came across the following three themes: (1) “Composition: Creating Music through the Embodiment of Inspiration, Intuition and Craft”; (2) “From Inception to Reception: Enriched, Transcendent Interactions through Music”; and (3) “Self of Composer: Development of Musical Expression through Compositional Experience”. The descriptions of the aforementioned themes highlight several key findings. First, music composition involves the interplay of inspiration, intuition, and knowledge of music. These embodied experiences of the composer become the nexus of interactional experiences for performers and audience members. Second, music composition enriches a composer’s intrapersonal and interpersonal interactions as music provides a more direct way of conveying sensory and emotional experiences (compared to conventional interactions). Third, the composer’s embodied experiences become the nexus of community for the performers and audience members who participate in the composer’s music. This study describes the role a composer has in the embodied, interactional experiences of music. Through my analysis, the composer can be viewed as the protagonist of community—joining people together through their music in different spaces and different times

Test-retest reliability of temporal and spatial gait characteristics measured with an instrumented walkway system (GAITRite(®))

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to determine the test-retest reliability of temporal and spatial gait measurements over a one-week period as measured using an instrumented walkway system (GAITRite(®)). METHODS: Subjects were tested on two occasions one week apart. Measurements were made at preferred and fast walking speeds using the GAITRite(® )system. Measurements tested included walking speed, step length, stride length, base of support, step time, stride time, swing time, stance time, single and double support times, and toe in-toe out angle. RESULTS: Twenty-one healthy subjects participated in this study. The group consisted of 12 men and 9 women, with an average age of 34 years (range: 19 – 59 years). At preferred walking speed, all gait measurements had ICC's of 0.92 and higher, except base of support which had an ICC of 0.80. At fast walking speed all gait measurements had ICC's above 0.89 except base of support (ICC = 0.79), CONCLUSIONS: Spatial-temporal gait measurements demonstrate good to excellent test-retest reliability over a one-week time span

Change in the diet of sooty owls (Tyto tenebricosa) since European settlement: from terrestrial to arboreal prey and increased overlap with powerful owls

The current diet of the sooty owl (Tyto tenebricosa) was determined by analysing freshly regurgitated pellets collected beneath their roosting sites in East Gippsland, Victoria. Comparisons were then made with: (i) prehistoric and historic diet from bone deposits found in cave roosts, and (ii) diet of a sympatric owl species, the powerful owl (Ninox strenua). Sooty owls consumed a large array of terrestrial mammal species before European settlement, but only three terrestrial species were detected in their current diet, a reduction of at least eight species since European settlement. To compensate, sooty owls have increased their consumption of arboreal prey from 55% to 81% of their diet. Arboreal species are also a major component of the powerful owl diet and this prey shift by sooty owls has increased dietary overlap between these two species. Predation by foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and other feral species is likely to have reduced the amount of terrestrial prey available to sooty owls since European settlement. Investigation of changes in the diet of sooty owls may offer a unique monitoring system for evaluating the ability of fox-control strategies to influence increases in numbers of critical-weight-range mammals.<br /

Wearable sensors in Huntington disease:a pilot study

Background: The Unified Huntington’s Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS) is the principal means of assessing motor impairment in Huntington disease but is subjective and generally limited to in-clinic assessments. Objective: To evaluate the feasibility and ability of wearable sensors to measure motor impairment in individuals with Huntington disease in the clinic and at home. Methods: Participants with Huntington disease and controls were asked to wear five accelerometer-based sensors attached to the chest and each limb for standardized, in-clinic assessments and for one day at home. A secondchest sensor was worn for six additional days at home. Gait measures were compared between controls, participants with Huntington disease, and participants with Huntington disease grouped by UHDRS total motor score using Cohen’s d values. Results: Fifteen individuals with Huntington disease and five controls completed the study. Sensor data were successfully captured from 18 of the 20 participants at home. In the clinic, the standard deviation of step time (timebetween consecutive steps) was increased in Huntington disease (p<0.0001; Cohen’s d=2.61) compared to controls. At home with additional observations, significant differences were observed in seven additional gait measures. The gait of individuals with higher total motor scores (50 or more) differed significantly from those with lower total motor scores (below 50) on multiple measures at home. Conclusions: In this pilot study, the use of wearable sensors in clinic and at home was feasible and demonstrated gait differences between controls, participants with Huntington disease, and participants with Huntington diseasegrouped by motor impairment

The Impact of Different Types of Assistive Devices on Gait Measures and Safety in Huntington's Disease

BACKGROUND: Gait and balance impairments lead to frequent falls and injuries in individuals with Huntington's disease (HD). Assistive devices (ADs) such as canes and walkers are often prescribed to prevent falls, but their efficacy is unknown. We systematically examined the effects of different types of ADs on quantitative gait measures during walking in a straight path and around obstacles. METHODS: Spatial and temporal gait parameters were measured in 21 subjects with HD as they walked across a GAITRite walkway under 7 conditions (i.e., using no AD and 6 commonly prescribed ADs: a cane, a weighted cane, a standard walker, and a 2, 3 or 4 wheeled walker). Subjects also were timed and observed for number of stumbles and falls while walking around two obstacles in a figure-of-eight pattern. RESULTS: Gait measure variability (i.e., coefficient of variation), an indicator of fall risk, was consistently better when using the 4WW compared to other ADs. Subjects also walked the fastest and had the fewest number of stumbles and falls when using the 4WW in the figure-of-eight course. Subjects walked significantly slower using ADs compared to no AD both across the GAITRite and in the figure-of-eight. Measures reflecting gait stability and safety improved with the 4WW but were made worse by some other ADs

Development and validation of a low-cost, portable and wireless gait assessment tool

Performing gait analysis in a clinical setting can often be challenging due to time, cost and the availability of sophisticated three-dimensional (3D) gait analysis systems. This study has developed and tested a portable wireless gait assessment tool (wi-GAT) to address these challenges. Methods: Ten healthy volunteers participated in the study (age range 23–30 years). Spatio-temporal gait parameters were recorded simultaneously by the Vicon and the wi-GAT systems as each subject walked at their self-selected speed. Results: The stride length and duration, cadence, stance duration and walking speed recorded using the wi-GAT showed strong agreement with those same parameters recorded by the Vicon (ICC of 0.94–0.996). A difference between the systems in registering “toe off” resulted in less agreement (ICC of 0.299–0.847) in gait parameters such as %stance and %swing and DST. Discussion and conclusion: The study demonstrated good concurrent validity for the wi-GAT system. The wi-GAT has the potential to be a useful assessment tool for clinicians