Molecular psychiatry of zebrafish

Due to their well-characterized neural development and high genetic homology to mammals, zebrafish (Danio rerio) have emerged as a powerful model organism in the field of biological psychiatry. Here, we discuss the molecular psychiatry of zebrafish, and its implications for translational neuroscience research and modeling central nervous system (CNS) disorders. In particular, we outline recent genetic and technological developments allowing for in vivo examinations, high-throughput screening and whole-brain analyses in larval and adult zebrafish. We also summarize the application of these molecular techniques to the understanding of neuropsychiatric disease, outlining the potential of zebrafish for modeling complex brain disorders, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), aggression, post-traumatic stress and substance abuse. Critically evaluating the advantages and limitations of larval and adult fish tests, we suggest that zebrafish models become a rapidly emerging new field in modern molecular psychiatry research

Formation and characterization of an all-ferrous Rieske cluster and stabilization of the [2Fe-2S](0) core by protonation

The all-ferrous Rieske cluster, [2Fe-2S](0), has been produced in solution and characterized by protein-film voltammetry and UV–visible, EPR, and Mössbauer spectroscopies. The [2Fe-2S](0) cluster, in the overexpressed soluble domain of the Rieske protein from the bovine cytochrome bc(1) complex, is formed at –0.73 V at pH 7. Therefore, at pH 7, the [2Fe-2S](1+/0) couple is 1.0 V below the [2Fe-2S](2+/1+) couple. The two cluster-bound ferrous irons are both high spin (S = 2), and they are coupled antiferromagnetically (–J ≥ 30 cm(–1), H =–2JS1·S2) to give a diamagnetic (S = 0) ground state. The ability of the Rieske cluster to exist in three oxidation states (2+, 1+, and 0) without an accompanying coupled reaction, such as a conformational change or protonation, is highly unusual. However, uncoupled reduction to the [2Fe-2S](0) state occurs at pH > 9.8 only, and at high pH the intact cluster persists in solution for <1 min. At pH < 9.8, the all-ferrous cluster is stabilized significantly by protonation. A combination of experimental data and calculations based on density functional theory suggests strongly that the proton binds to one of the cluster μ(2)-sulfides, consistent with observations that reduced [3Fe-4S] clusters are protonated also. The implications for our understanding of coupled reactions at iron–sulfur clusters and of the factors that determine the relative stabilities of their different oxidation states are discussed