Impact of the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) on the chemical and physical properties of Pinus pinaster wood. Socio-economic and environmental aspects of pine wilt disease in Portugal

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências Agronómicas e FlorestaisO nemátode da madeira do pinheiro, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, é uma das mais sérias ameaças à floresta de pinheiros a nível mundial. Em Portugal, o nemátode afecta o pinheiro bravo (Pinus pinaster Ait.), uma espécie de coníferas de grande valor económico. Os nemátodes migram através dos canais de resina e alimentam-se de células do parênquima, induzindo rápidas alterações metabólicas nas células do parênquima, áreas de cavitação, desnaturação e necrose do parênquima e células cambiais. O objectivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o impacto das alterações bioquímicas, do stress hídrico na madeira e da perda de produção de resina devidos ao ataque do nematode nas propriedades químicas e físicas da madeira de P. pinaster, nomeadamente, a densidade básica da madeira, a composição química elementar, o teor de extractivos, as propriedades de sorção, o poder calorífico superior (PCS), e a inflamabilidade. Este estudo interdisciplinar salienta os aspectos tecnológicos e económicos relacionados com a aptidão da madeira infectada para uso nas indústrias de processamento de madeira e de produção de bioenergia. Foram estudadas amostras de madeira de P. pinaster infectada com nemátode e não infectada. Árvores sintomáticas (escurecimento/vermelhidão das agulhas) e sem sintomas foram amostradas num povoamento de pinheiro bravo na região centro de Portugal. Foram recolhidas as amostras de seções transversais do tronco (1,5 m, 6 m da base, topo) e de ramos. Para todas as amostras foi realizado o teste de identificação e contagem de nemátodes. Os valores do PCS foram determinados de acordo com a norma CEN/TS-14918 usando o calorímetro de bomba Parr-6300 automático e o calorímetro de bomba Leco- AC600 semiautomático. Na análise da composição química, foram determinados os teores de carbono, hidrogénio, azoto, enxofre e cinzas por meio da combustão instantânea com a oxidação completa. A densidade básica foi calculada com base no peso seco e no volume saturado, sendo o último medido pelo método de imersão. A análise do conteúdo de extractivos foi efectuada recorrendo a um aparelho de extracção de Soxhlet e com base nas normas Tappi 204cm-07 e Tappi 207cm-08, tendo sido utilizados dois reagentes orgânicos (diclorometano e etanol) e um não-orgânico (água destilada). Os testes para determinar a variação de humidade e o teor de humidade de equilíbrio foram realizados na câmara climática Fitoclima-300 EDTU. Os testes de inflamabilidade foram realizados num calorímetro de cone com um fluxo constante de calor de 16 kW/m2. A análise estatística dos dados foi realizada com o software STATISTICA StatSoft Inc. Foram encontradas as seguintes diferenças entre a madeira de P. pinaster infectada e não infectada para os parâmetros estudados. •Verificou-se a diferença estatisticamente significativa para o PCS e os teores de hidrogénio e de azoto, em que a madeira infectada apresenta, em média, menor poder calorífico, menor teor de azoto e maior de hidrogénio. Os teores de carbono, oxigénio, enxofre e cinzas não se diferenciaram significativamente. O valor médio do PCS da madeira infectada (19,79 MJ/kg) posiciona-se entre o PCS de madeira de folhosas (18,6-19,8 MJ/kg) e o PCS de madeira de resinosas (20,0-22,5 MJ/kg). •Verificou-se a diminuição de 2% da densidade básica da madeira, e a diminuição de 8,90% a 5,98% para o teor total de extractivos. Nas árvores infectadas, os extractivos têm distribuição inversa ao longo do tronco comparativamente com as árvores não infectados. •Diferentes valores de humidade de equilíbrio foram obtidos para certas condições ambientais (algumas das diferenças foram estatisticamente significativas). As isotermas de adsorção para a madeira infectada e não infectada têm posicionamento similar. •Verificaram-se diferenças estatisticamente significativas para o tempo de ignição e o tempo em chama, e ligeiras diferenças nos valores de perda de massa. Para todos estes parâmetros, os valores obtidos para a madeira não infectada foram inferiores aos da madeira infectada. •Para a taxa de perda de massa, verificaram-se os valores mais baixos para a madeira infectada para as amostras recolhidas das secções do tronco a 6 e 1,5 m. Já para as secções do topo dos troncos não foram observadas diferenças significativas. •A madeira infectada tem menor taxa de liberação de calor e menor energia total libertada (diminuição estatisticamente significativa) do que a madeira não infectada. Os valores do teor total dos extractivos foram correlacionados (com significância estatística) com os do tempo de ignição, do tempo em chama e da perda de massa. Por fim, foram analisados os impactos socio-económico e ambiental do nemátode no contexto de Portugal. Foram apresentados os principais aspectos e parâmetros a incluir na modelação do impacto total do nemátode, e proposta uma nova abordagem para o controlo da doença da murchidão do pinheiro baseada na estrutura de mosaico florestal com o apoio das actividades económicas relacionadas. Apesar das diferenças verificadas para os parâmetros estudados, a conclusão geral é que o nematode do pinheiro bravo tem um pequeno impacto sobre as características estudadas de madeira. No entanto, existem algumas questões relacionadas com o uso industrial da madeira de P. pinaster infectada (produção de bioenergia, produção de papel e de pasta de papel, ciclo de vida de paletes) que necessitam de estudos adicionais.The pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is considered one of the most serious threats to pine forest worldwide. In Portugal, this nematode affects maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.): a coniferous species of a great economic value. The nematodes migrating through resin canals and feeding on parenchyma cells, induce rapid metabolic changes in ray parenchyma cells, cavitation areas, denaturation and necrosis of parenchyma and cambial cells. The objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of biochemical changes, water stress and loss of resin production due to nematode attack on the chemical and physical properties of P. pinaster wood, specifically, on wood basic density, elementary chemical composition, content of extractives, sorption properties, gross calorific value (GCV), and flammability. This interdisciplinary study stresses technological and economic aspects related with suitability of infected P. pinaster wood for use in the wood-processing and energy industries. Samples of PWD infected and uninfected wood were studied. P. pinaster trees with PWD symptoms (browning/reddening of the needles) and without symptoms were sampled in a planted pine forest in the central region of Portugal. Cross sections of the trunk at 1.5 m, 6 m from the base, top and crown branches were collected. Nematode screening, identification and quantification were performed for all sampled trees. The GCVs were determined using Parr 6300 automatic isoperibol calorimeter and Leco AC600 Semi-Automatic Isoperibol Calorimeter according to the standard method CEN/TS 14918. Chemical composition analysis was performed by determining the contents of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and ash on complete and instant oxidation of samples by “flash” combustion. Wood basic density was calculated on the basis of dry weight and green volume, the last one measured by water displacement or immersion method. The extractive content analysis was carried out with a Soxhlet extraction apparatus and based on the norm Tappi 204 cm-07 and Tappi 207 cm-08 norms. Two organic (dichloromethane and ethanol) and a non-organic (distilled water) reagents were used. The tests to determine the moisture content variation end equilibrium moisture content were carried out using a climatic chamber Fitoclima 300 EDTU. Flammability tests were performed in a cone calorimeter at a constant heat flux of 16 kW/m2. Statistical data analysis was performed with STATISTICA StatSoft Inc. software. The following differences for the studied parameters were found between infected and uninfected P. pinaster wood. •Statistically significant difference was found for the GCV and the contents of hydrogen and nitrogen, in which the infected wood has on average lower calorific value, lower nitrogen content and higher hydrogen content. The carbon, oxygen, sulfur and ash contents did not differ statistically. The mean GCV of infected wood (19.79 MJ/kg) varied between the GCV of hardwoods (18.6-19.8 MJ/kg) and the GCV of softwoods (20.0-22.5 MJ/kg). •The wood basic density decreases 2%, and the total extractives content decreases from 8.90% to 5.98%. Extractives in infected trees have inverse distribution along the trunk as compared with uninfected trees. •Differences (some of them statistically significant) in the equilibrium moisture content values, determined under varying environmental conditions, were found. The adsorption isotherms for infected and uninfected wood have similar positioning. •Statistically significant differences were found for time to ignition and time in flame, and slight differences were found for mass loss. For all these parameters, obtained values for uninfected wood were lower than those for infected wood. •Lower values of the mass loss rate were found for infected wood for trunk at 6 and 1.5 m. No differences were observed for top of the trunk. •Statistically significant decrease of the values of the total energy released was found for infected wood. Statistically significant correlation was found between the total extractive content and time to ignition, time in flame and mass loss. Finally, socio-economic and environmental impacts of the PWD in the context of Portugal were analyzed. Framework for modelling of the total PWD impact was presented and new approach for the PWD control, based on forest mosaic structure supported by economic activities, was discussed. Despite the differences verified for studied parameters, the overall conclusion is that PWN has a slight impact on studied characteristics of wood. However, there are some related issues of industrial use of PWN infected P. pinaster wood (bioenergy production, pulp and paper production, pallets life cycle) that need additional studies

Métodos de optimização por etapas da estrutura organizacional de um sistema económico-industrial

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Gaining momentum: Popularization of Epilobium angustifolium as food and recreational tea on the Eastern edge of Europe

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