Price bargaining and quantity bonus in developing economies

Consider a seller and a buyer bargaining over the price of an agricultural product in a developing economy. Think of the following common bargaining deal: the seller tries to persuade the buyer to accept a higher price and, in return, give the buyer a deal (i.e., extra units of the product for free). Why doesnÕt the seller just give the buyer a lower price instead of the deal? This paper provides an answer to this question. Although price can apparently replicate the use of quantity bonus (i.e., the free extra units), we argue that price bargaining per se limits the extent to which price can be used. Such bargaining deals are used because the seller can post them but cannot post prices. We explain why these sellers can post quantity bonuses. We give a condition under which the quantity bonus can replicate the equilibrium that would have obtained if the seller could directly post the price. We offer here a theory of bargaining deals.price bargaining, non-price competition, posted prices, quantity bonus

Economic Analysis of Rubber Agroforestry Systems in Ghana

Even though rubber contributes massively to Ghana’s economy, smallholder rubber farmers’ inability to wait for about 6-8 years to see the benefits constrains establishment and expansion of the rubber subsector. To lessen the waiting time to the benefits, an option exists to intercrop rubber with food crops. Cost benefits analysis of rubber/plantain intercropping system under different treatments on two experimental plots for sole crop plantain (P) and three intercropping treatments consisting of one (PR), two (PPR) and three (PPPR) rows of plantain each between two rows of rubber each were carried out to assess the most viable. Analysis using discounted cash flow was used to determine the benefit/cost ratio (BCR), net present value (NPV) in addition to internal rate of return (IRR) at 25 % interest rate. All the rubber/plantain intercropping systems (PR, PPR and PPPR) were found to be profitable from the results. The highest return of GHȻ40, 331 (USD 9,379) per hectare from plantain over the period of two years was realized from the PPPR cropping system. Additional analysis performed to assess the profitability of rubber/plantain intercropping systems by varying the price of plantain, discount rate and the total cost of production showed that the systems were all profitable. The PPPR was the most profitable with the highest income to smallholder farmers. Extension education by the government through the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and Ghana Rubber Estates Limited and support to rubber farmers to access credit can help in farmers’ adoption of rubber agroforestry system

Nanomaterials in 2 dimensions for flexible solar cell applications a review

This review presents the progress, challenges and prospects of ultrathin flexible photovoltaic devices based on 2 dimensional 2D nanomaterials. These devices have shown very high performance in bending stabilities for up to 90 of their power conversion efficiencies PCEs after multiple bending deformations. They are thin film PVs with lightweight and mechanically robust structures that allow use in the continual advancing solar cell applications. In this paper, comprehensive assessments of 2D nanomaterials, their syntheses methods, performance, degradation, mechanical and opto electronic characterization in flexible photovoltaic PV cells are highlighted. Semi conductor materials such as conjugated donor and acceptor polymers, small donor acceptor molecules and organometal halide perovskites for use as active layers in such flexible solar cell structures are reviewed. The challenges and prospects associated with the adoption of 2D nanomaterials in flexible solar cells are presented. The review highlights the need to transition laboratory results on 2D nanomaterials based flexible solar cells into scale up and commercialized products despite the existing and also opens research areas for researchers to explore and achieve robust and high efficient solar device

Rubber and plantain intercropping: Effects of different planting densities on soil characteristics

Two field experiments were conducted at Ellembelle and Jomoro districts in the Western region of Ghana where rubber cultivation is a predominant farming activity. The objective of the study was to assess the effect of rubber and plantain intercropping systems on selected soil properties. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replications. The treatments were the sole crop rubber (R), sole crop plantain (P) and three intercrop systems comprising an additive series of plantain: one row of plantain to one row of rubber (PR), two rows of plantain to one row of rubber (PPR) and three rows of plantain to one row of rubber (PPPR). Generally, agroforestry systems improved the soil hydraulic properties considerably, with the highest cumulative infiltration rates of 5.16 and 8.68 cm/min observed under the PPPR systems at the Ellembelle and Jomoro sites, respectively. Microbial biomass C (Cmic), N (Nmic) and P (Pmic) was significantly improved (P < 0.05) under the agroforestry than the monocrop systems. The Cmic, Nmic and Pmic values were highest under the PPPR system at both Ellembelle (Cmic, = 139.9 mg/kg; Nmic = 36.26 mg/kg and Pmic = 87.6 mg/kg) and Jomoro (Cmic = 78.7 mg/kg; Nmic = 80.3 mg/kg and Pmic = 3.45 mg/kg) sites

Exploring gastrointestinal variables affecting drug and formulation behavior: methodologies, challenges and opportunities

Various gastrointestinal (GI) factors affect drug and formulation behavior after oral administration, including GI transfer, motility, pH and GI fluid volume and composition. An in-depth understanding of these physiological and anatomical variables is critical for a continued progress in oral drug development. In this review, different methodologies (invasive versus non-invasive) to explore the impact of physiological variables on formulation behavior in the human GI tract are presented, revealing their strengths and limitations. The techniques mentioned allow for an improved understanding of the role of following GI variables: gastric emptying (magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), scintigraphy, acetaminophen absorption technique, ultrasonography, breath test, intraluminal sampling and telemetry), motility (MRI, small intestinal/colonic manometry and telemetry), GI volume changes (MRI and ultrasonography), temperature (telemetry) and intraluminal pH (intraluminal sampling and telemetry)

Driver Compliance with Traffic Signal Indications in Two Ghanaian Cities

Driver response to signal indications was monitored at a selected number of signalised intersections and signal-controlled pedestrian crossings within the Kumasi and Accra metropolitan areas. The objective of the study was to establish the scale of red-light running among drivers in the two cities. Out of 189,628 vehicle events monitored at a total of seven signal-controlled intersections and two signal-controlled pedestrian crossings in the two metropolitan areas, 9,985 constituted red-light running, i.e. globally, 5.3% of the drivers did not comply with signal indications. However, when the data was aggregated for each metropolitan area, the incidence of red-light running was higher in the Kumasi Metropolis (6.8%) than in the Accra Metropolis (4.4%). Drivers were more compliant at signal-controlled pedestrian crossings than at signal-controlled intersections and only marginally more compliant during the morning than the evening rush hours