LE BLE, LE TEMPS, L'ENERGIE : THEORIES SOVIETIQUES DE L'ABOLITION DE LA MONNAIE 1917-1921

Right from the beginning, the socialist movement shared a distrust of money and market exchanges, especially certain German social democrats at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century.Despite Lenin’s doubts, some Bolsheviks such as Larin and Bukharin believed that naturalization necessitated by hyperinflation and civil war during the War Communism period, was really a precursor to a communist society, which would be moneyless.Under these circumstances, alternative solutions to money had to be found in order to measure the value of different products and apply the economic calculations required for investment planning and distribution of limited resources. The need to protect employees’ rapidly declining purchasing power caused by hyperinflation quickly led to the naturalization of wages, with at least a partial payment “in kind”. At the same time, Chajanov, an agrarian economist, suggested that the Russian economy be seen as a “grandiose natural economy”, which could be directly planned using an accounting system based on natural units, kilograms, cubic meters, etc…by directly comparing the population’s needs with the production capacity.Other economists, such as Strumiline, Varga, Kerve or Shmelev, recommended replacing the failing currency standard with a labor time standard, the only conceivable universal equivalent for economic calculations in a socialist economy. For the occasion, Strumilin elaborated the first optimal planning model that had a social utility function. However, it became impossible to overcome the practical difficulties of putting in place a labor time accounting system. Eventually, the labor-value wound up confined to the role of ideological tool, essential for the device of the political economy of socialism.Led by two economists, M. N. Smit and S. Klepikov, the energy-value was one attempt to introduce a physical measuring unit of energy spent on production as a universal standard. It’s a sort of generalization of the labor-value during a time when mechanization was glorified within the field of economics of course, but also in politics and the arts. Lenin’s famous quote “communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the whole country” is evidence of this, as well as the futurism and constructivism movements. As opposed to the labor-value, the energy-value left no trace in Soviet economic thought.Despite the end of War Communism and the return of market exchanges and a relatively stable currency, the Internationale program in 1928 still listed as its objectives eliminating markets and money and putting in place planning and work vouchers. Orthodoxy was now going to be this affirmation-negation of utopia, this presence-absence of a future that had almost occurred but still in perpetual construction.Dès l’origine, la méfiance envers la monnaie et les relations marchandes est largement partagée au sein du mouvement socialiste, en particulier chez certains sociaux-démocrates allemands à la fin du XIXe et au début du XXe siècle. Malgré les réticences de Lénine, quelques bolcheviques comme Larin et Boukharine crurent que la naturalisation imposée par l’hyperinflation et la guerre civile pendant la période du Communisme de Guerre préfigurait réellement la société communiste, où l’argent serait aboli.Dans ces conditions, il était impératif de réfléchir sur des solutions alternatives à la monnaie, pour mesurer la valeur des différents biens produits et pour mener les calculs économiques indispensables à la planification des investissements et de l’affectation des ressources rares.La nécessité de protéger les salariés de l’érosion très rapide de leur pouvoir d’achat par l’hyperinflation a rapidement mené à la naturalisation des salaires, payés au moins partiellement sous forme de « rations ». Parallèlement Chajanov, un économiste agrarien, proposait de considérer l’économie de la Russie comme « une grandiose économie naturelle », qu’il était possible de planifier directement sur la base d’une comptabilité tenue en unités naturelles, kilogrammes, mètres cubes etc … en comparant directement les besoins de la population et les capacités productives.D’autres économistes, comme Strumiline, Varga, Kervé ou Shmelev, proposèrent de remplacer l’étalon monétaire défaillant par un étalon en temps de travail, seul équivalent universel envisageable pour mener à bien un calcul économique dans une économie socialiste. Strumiline élabore à cette occasion le premier modèle de planification optimale doté d’une fonction d’utilité sociale. Cependant, il se révéla impossible de surmonter les difficultés pratiques de mise en œuvre d’une comptabilité en temps de travail. Avec le temps, la valeur-travail finit donc cantonnée au rôle d’outil idéologique essentiel dans le dispositif de l’économie politique du socialisme.La valeur-énergie constitue une tentative, menée par deux économistes M. N. Smit et S. KLEPIKOV, pour introduire comme étalon universel une unité de mesure physique de 1'énergie dépensée dans la production. Il s’agit d’une sorte de généralisation de la valeur travail dans une période où l’exaltation du machinisme traverse le champ économique, certes, mais aussi politique et artistique. En témoignent d’une part la célèbre phrase de Lenine «  le communisme c'est le pouvoir des soviets plus l'électrification de tout le pays » et d’autre part les mouvements futuriste et constructiviste. Au contraire de la valeur-travail, la valeur-énergie ne laissa guère de traces dans la pensée économique soviétique. Malgré la fin du Communisme de Guerre et le retour aux relations marchandes et à une monnaie relativement stable, l'abolition du marché et de la monnaie et l'instauration de la planification et des bons en travail restèrent des objectifs inscrits dans le programme de l'Internationale en 1928. L'orthodoxie allait être dorénavant cette affirmation-négation de l'utopie, cette présence-absence d'un futur presque advenu mais toujours encore en construction

Combination of searches for heavy spin-1 resonances using 139 fb−1 of proton-proton collision data at s = 13 TeV with the ATLAS detector

A combination of searches for new heavy spin-1 resonances decaying into different pairings of W, Z, or Higgs bosons, as well as directly into leptons or quarks, is presented. The data sample used corresponds to 139 fb−1 of proton-proton collisions at = 13 TeV collected during 2015–2018 with the ATLAS detector at the CERN Large Hadron Collider. Analyses selecting quark pairs (qq, bb, , and tb) or third-generation leptons (τν and ττ) are included in this kind of combination for the first time. A simplified model predicting a spin-1 heavy vector-boson triplet is used. Cross-section limits are set at the 95% confidence level and are compared with predictions for the benchmark model. These limits are also expressed in terms of constraints on couplings of the heavy vector-boson triplet to quarks, leptons, and the Higgs boson. The complementarity of the various analyses increases the sensitivity to new physics, and the resulting constraints are stronger than those from any individual analysis considered. The data exclude a heavy vector-boson triplet with mass below 5.8 TeV in a weakly coupled scenario, below 4.4 TeV in a strongly coupled scenario, and up to 1.5 TeV in the case of production via vector-boson fusion

Measurement of vector boson production cross sections and their ratios using pp collisions at √s = 13.6 TeV with the ATLAS detector

Abstract available from publisher's website

Combination of searches for heavy spin-1 resonances using 139 fb−1 of proton-proton collision data at √s = 13 TeV with the ATLAS detector

A combination of searches for new heavy spin-1 resonances decaying into diferent pairings of W, Z, or Higgs bosons, as well as directly into leptons or quarks, is presented. The data sample used corresponds to 139 fb−1 of proton-proton collisions at √s = 13 TeV collected during 2015–2018 with the ATLAS detector at the CERN Large Hadron Collider. Analyses selecting quark pairs (qq, bb, tt¯, and tb) or third-generation leptons (τν and τ τ ) are included in this kind of combination for the frst time. A simplifed model predicting a spin-1 heavy vector-boson triplet is used. Cross-section limits are set at the 95% confdence level and are compared with predictions for the benchmark model. These limits are also expressed in terms of constraints on couplings of the heavy vector-boson triplet to quarks, leptons, and the Higgs boson. The complementarity of the various analyses increases the sensitivity to new physics, and the resulting constraints are stronger than those from any individual analysis considered. The data exclude a heavy vector-boson triplet with mass below 5.8 TeV in a weakly coupled scenario, below 4.4 TeV in a strongly coupled scenario, and up to 1.5 TeV in the case of production via vector-boson fusion

Combination of searches for heavy spin-1 resonances using 139 fb−1 of proton-proton collision data at √s = 13 TeV with the ATLAS detector

A combination of searches for new heavy spin-1 resonances decaying into different pairings of W, Z, or Higgs bosons, as well as directly into leptons or quarks, is presented. The data sample used corresponds to 139 fb−1 of proton-proton collisions at √s = 13 TeV collected during 2015–2018 with the ATLAS detector at the CERN Large Hadron Collider. Analyses selecting quark pairs (qq, bb, tt¯, and tb) or third-generation leptons (τν and ττ) are included in this kind of combination for the first time. A simplified model predicting a spin-1 heavy vector-boson triplet is used. Cross-section limits are set at the 95% confidence level and are compared with predictions for the benchmark model. These limits are also expressed in terms of constraints on couplings of the heavy vector-boson triplet to quarks, leptons, and the Higgs boson. The complementarity of the various analyses increases the sensitivity to new physics, and the resulting constraints are stronger than those from any individual analysis considered. The data exclude a heavy vector-boson triplet with mass below 5.8 TeV in a weakly coupled scenario, below 4.4 TeV in a strongly coupled scenario, and up to 1.5 TeV in the case of production via vector-boson fusion

Small-signal model extraction technique dedicated to noise behaviour of microwave HBTs

A complete on-wafer heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) equivalent circuit parameters extraction technique is presented. It is based on the successive extraction of extrinsic and intrinsic elements. An improved method for parasitic inductance values determination is proposed. It results in a more accurate modelling of HBTs which is shown to be very useful especially for high frequency noise parameter modelling

Transfusion sanguine et immortalité chez Alexandr Bogdanov

Alexandr Bogdanov on Blood Transfusion and Immortality. Alexandr Bogdanov (1873-1928) was a prominent Bolshevik leader and ideologue, as well as a medical doctor and the founder of the first institute for blood transfusion in the world (Moscow, 1926). For him, blood transfusion was an application of the organisational principles he had discovered under the name of « tektological laws ». Blood transfusion was to be considered in therapy but the main idea was to promote « physiological collectivism » and to lengthen human life through blood transfusions between the young and the old. As a consequence of this quest for immortality — which was a common concern among « God's builders » (a group of Bolsheviks close to Bogdanov) —, Lenin's body was frozen so as to be resurrected in the future by scientific methods.Alexandr Bogdanov (1873-1928), dirigeant et idéologue bolchevik de première importance, fut aussi un médecin et le fondateur de l'Institut central de transfusion sanguine de l'Union Soviétique (Moscou, 1926), premier institut de ce type au monde. La transfusion sanguine était pour Bogdanov une application de lois organisationnelles (« tektologiques ») « d'égalisation des extrêmes et de complétion des manques ». Au delà des objectifs thérapeutiques communément admis, le but de Bogdanov était de promouvoir un « collectivisme physiologique » et de prolonger la vie humaine par des transfusions réjuvénatrices entre jeunes et vieux. La conservation du cadavre de Lénine, dans la perspective d'une résurrection grâce aux connaissances scientifiques futures, est en rapport direct avec les préoccupations relatives à l'immortalité de certains bolcheviks de la première génération.Tartarin Robert. Transfusion sanguine et immortalité chez Alexandr Bogdanov. In: Droit et société, n°28, 1994. Le sang : les veines du social. pp. 565-581

Planification et régulation dans les économies socialistes : pour une théorie de la valeur comptable

Planning and Control in the Socialist Economies: a Theory of Accounting Value. Starting from the general proposition that the Soviet type economy is one characterised by a system of accounting value, i.e. by a set of norms aimed at ensuring external control over the behaviour of units organised in a hierarchical structure of dependence, the article attempts to show what are the essential relationships underpinning the Soviet type of organisation and its concomitant method of evaluation, and also to relate analytically the actual degrees of autonomy and subordination of the units of production. The models of the Soviet economy, as a command or pluralist economy, are then seen as inadequate, while the second economy becomes an informal connterpart closely interwoven with the pattern of formal economic activity.En considérant d'une façon très générale, que le type de l'économie soviétique peut être caractérisé par le système de la valeur comptable, c'est-à-dire par un ensemble de normes visant à assurer un contrôle externe sur le comportement d'unités organisées dans une structure de dépendance hiérarchique, l'article tente de montrer quels rapports nécessaires entretiennent la forme d'organisation soviétique et le mode d'évaluation correspondant et il essaie d'intégrer analytiquement l'autonomie réelle et la subordination réelle des unités. Les modèles de l'économie soviétique comme économie de commandement ou comme économie pluraliste apparaissent dès lors inadéquats tandis que l'économie seconde devient le double informel, intrinsèquement lié à toute activité formelle.Tartarin Robert. Planification et régulation dans les économies socialistes : pour une théorie de la valeur comptable. In: Revue d'études comparatives Est-Ouest, vol. 12, 1981, n°2. pp. 181-197