Reply to: Critical revision of the ZEPLIN-I sensitivity to WIMP interactions

Recent objections (Phys.Lett. B 637, 156) to the published Zeplin I limit (Astropart. Phys 23, 444) are shown to arise from misunderstandings of the calibration data and procedure, and a misreading of the data in one of the referenced papers.Comment: 5 page

Muon-induced neutron production and detection with GEANT4 and FLUKA

We report on a comparison study of the Monte Carlo packages GEANT4 and FLUKA for simulating neutron production by muons penetrating deep underground. GEANT4 is found to generate fewer neutrons at muon energies above ~100 GeV, by at most a factor of 2 in some materials, which we attribute mainly to lower neutron production in hadronic cascades. As a practical case study, the muon-induced neutron background expected in a 250 kg liquid-xenon WIMP dark matter detector was calculated and good agreement was found for the recoil event rates. The detailed model of neutron elastic scattering in GEANT4 was also shown to influence the nuclear recoil spectrum observed in the target, which is presently a shortcoming of FLUKA. We conclude that both packages are suited for this type of simulation, although further improvements are desirable in both cases.Comment: (23 pages, 14 figures) To appear in Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A v2: Changes to format only; v3: Corrected typo in front matter; v4: Looked up additional experimental data for comparison with simulation

Detailed Calculation of Test-Mass Charging in the LISA Mission

The electrostatic charging of the LISA test masses due to exposure of the spacecraft to energetic particles in the space environment has implications in the design and operation of the gravitational inertial sensors and can affect the quality of the science data. Robust predictions of charging rates and associated stochastic fluctuations are therefore required for the exposure scenarios expected throughout the mission. We report on detailed charging simulations with the Geant4 toolkit, using comprehensive geometry and physics models, for Galactic cosmic-ray protons and helium nuclei. These predict positive charging rates of 50 +e/s (elementary charges per second) for solar minimum conditions, decreasing by half at solar maximum, and current fluctuations of up to 30 +e/s/Hz^{1/2}. Charging from sporadic solar events involving energetic protons was also investigated. Using an event-size distribution model, we conclude that their impact on the LISA science data is manageable. Several physical processes hitherto unexplored as potential charging mechanisms have also been assessed. Significantly, the kinetic emission of very low-energy secondary electrons due to bombardment of the inertial sensors by primary cosmic rays and their secondaries can produce charging currents comparable with the Monte Carlo rates.Comment: 31 pages, 18 figures, 4 tables. to be published in Astroparticle Physics. Changed due to error found in normalisation of the simulation result

Muon-induced background in a next-generation dark matter experiment based on liquid xenon

Muon-induced neutrons can lead to potentially irreducible backgrounds in rare event search experiments. We have investigated the implication of laboratory depth on the muon-induced background in a future dark matter experiment capable of reaching the so-called neutrino floor. Our simulation study focused on a xenon-based detector with 70 tonnes of active mass, surrounded by additional veto systems plus a water shield. Two locations at the Boulby Underground Laboratory (UK) were analysed as examples: an experimental cavern in salt at a depth of 2850 m w. e. (similar to the location of the existing laboratory), and a deeper laboratory located in polyhalite rock at a depth of 3575 m w. e. Our results show that no cosmogenic background events are likely to survive standard analysis cuts for 10 years of operation at either location. The largest background component we identified comes from beta-delayed neutron emission from 17 N which is produced from 19 F in the fluoropolymer components of the experiment. Our results confirm that a dark matter search with sensitivity to the neutrino floor is viable (from the point of view of cosmogenic backgrounds) in underground laboratories at these levels of rock overburden. This work was conducted in 2019–21 in the context of a feasibility study to investigate the possibility of developing the Boulby Underground Laboratory to host a next-generation dark matter experiment; however, our findings are also relevant for other underground laboratories

Antarctic microbial mats: a modern analogue for Archean lacustrine oxygen oases.

The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis was the most important geochemical event in Earth history, causing the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) ~2.4 b.y. ago. However, evidence is mixed as to whether O2 production occurred locally as much as 2.8 b.y. ago, creating O2 oases, or initiated just prior to the GOE. The biogeochemical dynamics of possible O2 oases have been poorly constrained due to the absence of modern analogs. However, cyanobacteria in microbial mats in a perennially anoxic region of Lake Fryxell, Antarctica, create a 1–2 mm O2-containing layer in the upper mat during summer, providing the first known modern analog for formation of benthic O2 oases. In Lake Fryxell, benthic cyanobacteria are present below the oxycline in the lake. Mat photosynthesis rates were slow due to low photon flux rate (1–2 μmol m-2 s-1) under thick ice cover, but photosynthetic O2 production was sufficient to sustain up to 50 μmol O2 L-1, sandwiched between anoxic overlying water and anoxic sediments. We hypothesize that Archean cyanobacteria could have similarly created O2 oases in benthic mats prior to the GOE. Analogous mats may have been at least partly responsible for geological evidence of oxidative weathering prior to the GOE, and habitats such as Lake Fryxell provide natural laboratories where the impact of benthic O2 oases on biogeochemical signatures can be investigated

Measurements of Scintillation Efficiency and Pulse-Shape for Low Energy Recoils in Liquid Xenon

Results of observations of low energy nuclear and electron recoil events in liquid xenon scintillator detectors are given. The relative scintillation efficiency for nuclear recoils is 0.22 +/- 0.01 in the recoil energy range 40 keV - 70 keV. Under the assumption of a single dominant decay component to the scintillation pulse-shape the log-normal mean parameter T0 of the maximum likelihood estimator of the decay time constant for 6 keV < Eee < 30 keV nuclear recoil events is equal to 21.0 ns +/- 0.5 ns. It is observed that for electron recoils T0 rises slowly with energy, having a value ~ 30 ns at Eee ~ 15 keV. Electron and nuclear recoil pulse-shapes are found to be well fitted by single exponential functions although some evidence is found for a double exponential form for the nuclear recoil pulse-shape.Comment: 11 pages, including 5 encapsulated postscript figure

A Study of the Scintillation Induced by Alpha Particles and Gamma Rays in Liquid Xenon in an Electric Field

Scintillation produced in liquid xenon by alpha particles and gamma rays has been studied as a function of applied electric field. For back scattered gamma rays with energy of about 200 keV, the number of scintillation photons was found to decrease by 64+/-2% with increasing field strength. Consequently, the pulse shape discrimination power between alpha particles and gamma rays is found to reduce with increasing field, but remaining non-zero at higher fields.Comment: 15 pages, 12 figures, accepted by Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research

Stromatolite records of environmental change in perennially ice-covered Lake Joyce, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica

Calcite-rich columnar stromatolites grew in perennially ice-covered Lake Joyce in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, during a period of environmental change associated with rising lake level. Stromatolite calcite contains carbon and oxygen isotope records of changes to microbial activity in response to variable light environments and water chemistry through time. The stromatolites grew synchronously with correlative calcite zones. The innermost (oldest) calcite zone has a wide range of δ¹³Ccalcite values consistent with variable photosynthetic effects on local DIC ¹³C/¹²C. Subsequent calcite zones preserve a progressive enrichment in δ¹³Ccalcite values of approximately + 2.6‰ through time, with δ¹³Ccalcite values becoming less variable. This enrichment likely records the removal of ¹²C by photosynthesis from the DIC reservoir over decades, with photosynthetic effects decreasing as light levels became lower and more consistent through time. Mean δ¹⁸Ocalcite values of the innermost calcified zone were at least 1‰ lower than those of the other calcified zones (t test p-level < 0.001). The significant difference in δ¹⁸Ocalcite values between the innermost and other calcified zones could be a product of mixing source waters with different isotopic values associated with the initiation of lake stratification associated with rising lake level. Overall, Lake Joyce stromatolites record significant lateral variability in relative photosynthetic rate and long-lived lake water stratification with microbial modification of the DIC pool. Such processes provide criteria for interpreting microbial activity within polar paleolake deposits and may shed light on variability in lake environments associated with changing climate in the McMurdo Dry Valleys

First Results from the DRIFT-IIa Dark Matter Detector

Data from the DRIFT-IIa directional dark matter experiment are presented, collected during a near continuous 6 month running period. A detailed calibration analysis comparing data from gamma-ray, x-ray and neutron sources to a GEANT4 Monte Carlo simulations reveals an efficiency for detection of neutron induced recoils of 94+/-2(stat.)+/-5(sys.)%. Software-based cuts, designed to remove non-nuclear recoil events, are shown to reject 60Co gamma-rays with a rejection factor of better than 8x10-6 for all energies above threshold. An unexpected event population has been discovered and is shown here to be due to the alpha-decay of 222Rn daughter nuclei that have attached to the central cathode. A limit on the flux of neutrons in the Boulby Underground Laboratory is derived from analysis of unshielded and shielded data.Comment: 43 pages, 14 figures, submitted to Astroparticle Physic

Track Reconstruction and Performance of DRIFT Directional Dark Matter Detectors using Alpha Particles

First results are presented from an analysis of data from the DRIFT-IIa and DRIFT-IIb directional dark matter detectors at Boulby Mine in which alpha particle tracks were reconstructed and used to characterise detector performance--an important step towards optimising directional technology. The drift velocity in DRIFT-IIa was [59.3 +/- 0.2 (stat) +/- 7.5 (sys)] m/s based on an analysis of naturally-occurring alpha-emitting background. The drift velocity in DRIFT-IIb was [57 +/- 1 (stat) +/- 3 (sys)] m/s determined by the analysis of alpha particle tracks from a Po-210 source. 3D range reconstruction and energy spectra were used to identify alpha particles from the decay of Rn-222, Po-218, Rn-220 and Po-216. This study found that (22 +/- 2)% of Po-218 progeny (from Rn-222 decay) are produced with no net charge in 40 Torr CS2. For Po-216 progeny (from Rn-220 decay) the uncharged fraction is (100 +0 -35)%.Comment: 27 pages, 12 figures, 5 tables. Submitted to Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A. Subj-class: Instrumentation and Detector