Tattoo disease of odontocetes as a potential indicator of a degrading or stressful environment: a preliminary report. Scientific Committee document SC/55/E1, International Whaling Commission, May-June 2003, Berlin, Germany

We examined the presence of tattoo lesions in 613 small cetaceans belonging to nine species and originating from the Southeast Pacific Ocean, the Southwest and Northeast Atlantic Ocean as well as from the North, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas. Most of the specimens had been caught in nets or were found stranded in the period 1988-2002. Thirty-five bottlenose dolphins from the Sado estuary, Portugal were photographed alive in 1994-1997. Tattoo lesions were detected in 68 of 196 Lagenorhynchus obscurus, 33 of 54 Delphinus capensis, five of 12 Tursiops truncatus, 57 of 95 Phocoena spinipinnis from Peru as well as in 17 of 35 T. truncatus from the Sado estuary, in two of 10 Stenella coeruleoalba and one of four T. truncatus from the Mediterranean Sea. Prevalence of the disease varied significantly between species in mature specimens but not among immatures. It also varied very significantly between inshore (P. spinipinnis and Sado T. truncatus) and offshore or offshore-neritic (S. coeruleoalba, L. obscurus, D. capensis and Peruvian T. truncatus) odontocetes, being higher in adult specimens of inshore (53.5%) than of offshore (29.7%) taxa. This variation may be caused by immunotoxic environmental pollutants of continental origin like organochlorines. The coastal waters of Peru and the Sado estuary suffer from eutrophication and pollution from various origins. Direct correlation with pollutant loads needs to be investigated

Microparasites and their potential impact on the population dynamics of small cetaceans from South America: a brief review. Document SC/59/DW8, Scientific Committee, International Whaling Commission, Anchorage, Alaska, 4-14 May 2007

We briefly review the pathology, epidemiology and molecular biology of cetacean viruses (including morbilli, papilloma and pox) and Brucella spp. encountered in South America. Antibodies against cetacean morbillivirus were detected (by iELISAs and virus neutralisation tests) in SE Pacific and SW Atlantic delphinids. Morbilliviruses are possibly enzootic in Lagenorhynchus obscurus and offshore Tursiops truncates from Peru and in Lagenodelphis hosei from Brazil and Argentina, but no morbillivirus antibodies were found in inshore small cetaceans. Papillomaviruses cause genital warts in at least three odontocete species in Peru. Two Phocoena spinipinnis papillomaviruses (PsPVs) were found in warts of Burmeister’s porpoises; one (PsPV-1) was cloned and characterized. Half of porpoises had developed genital warts, while in 10% of males the lesions were sufficiently numerous and severe to at least hamper, if not impede, copulation. High titers of cowpox virus neutralising antibodies were detected in Peruvian D. capensis, T. truncatus, L. obscurus and P. spinipinnis in 1993-1995. The high prevalence of orthopoxvirus neutralising antibodies with high titres indicates common infection by poxviruses antigenically related to cowpox virus, the probable causative agents of tattoo skin disease. Cetacean poxviruses may cause significant mortaliy among neonates and calves unprotected by maternal immunity. In Peru, Brucella spp. antibodies were detected (competitive ELISA) in D. capensis, T. truncatus, L. obscurus and P. spinipinnis. Brucellosis is likely enzootic in the latter two species, and may lead to orchitis and bone lesions in L. obscurus and D. capensis. The enzootic circulation of brucellae in L. obscurus and P. spinipinnis may constitute a measurable limiting factor among the environmental variables affecting population dynamics. Also, widespread Brucella spp. infection in several Peruvian odontocetes has public health implications (zoonosis), considering frequent manipulation of carcases and consumption of meat. Extrinsic anthropogenic factors may not only exacerbate the consequences of viral infections on the health of a particular individual, but also operate at the population level

Bloom’s taxonomy and the application of knowledge: problem-based learning in the subject ‘Zoology’ at the University of Valencia

De acuerdo con la taxonomía de Bloom, en el contexto de la enseñanza los procesos cognitivos se encuentran jerarquizados en seis niveles de complejidad creciente e inclusiva. Así, una materia puede perseguir que los studiantes (1) memoricen información, (2) la comprendan, (3) la apliquen para resolver problemas nuevos, (4) la analicen, (5) la evalúen o (6) incluso creen nuevo conocimiento a partir de ella. Tradicionalmente, en las universidades españolas la asignatura de Zoología ha promovido primordialmente la memorización y la comprensión. Sin embargo, parece hoy recomendable trabajar también procesos cognitivos superiores, haciendo hincapié en la aplicación del conocimiento zoológico. Esto proporciona herramientas a los estudiantes para abordar una gran variedad de preguntas, ayudando a forjar un estilo de pensamiento; permite adaptar los contenidos a una menor presencialidad, generando autonomía en la forma de trabajar, y desplaza el énfasis epistemológico desde una ciencia de sujetos hacia una ciencia de principios. En este trabajo presentamos un diseño realista de clases de problemas de zoología para grupos numerosos, tal y como se plantea en la Universidad de Valencia. El elemento clave de nuestra iniciativa es una selección muy cuidadosa de los problemas: no se trata de memorizar o comprender debates clásicos o recientes en zoología, ni de meros ejercicios de corroboración. Los problemas de aplicación que planteamos obligan al estudiante a buscar relaciones o consecuencias no inmediatas de los conocimientos que van adquiriendo sobre filogenia, diversidad, planes corporales, morfología funcional y estrategias vitales; intentamos además que incluyan filos que no se tratan en el temario. En este trabajo ilustramos diversos problemas tipo y describimos qué temporalización, carga docente y metodología pueden resultar más adecuadas dentro de un programa “clásico” de Zoología. El criterio fundamental de evaluación es que las respuestas sean plausibles, aunque no necesariamente correctas.According to Bloom’s taxonomy, the cognitive processes that are involved in any learning context can be organized into six inclusive levels of increasing complexity. The aim(s) of any academic subject can be (1) to memorize information, (2) to understand it, (3) to apply it to solve new problems, (4) to analyze it, (5) to evaluate it, and even (6) to create new knowledge based on it. Traditionally, in Spanish universities the subject ‘Zoology’ has primarily addressed memorization and understanding. However, it would seem advisable to also deal with upper cognitive processes, particularly the application of knowledge. This would allow students to tackle a great diversity of zoology questions, help creating a thinking style, and to reduce the number of lectures since students could deal with several contents by themselves. Also, the application of knowledge would shift emphasis from subjects (animals) to principles. In this presentation we describe a realistic design for problem-based lectures on zoology that are devised for large classes at the University of Valencia. The key element for a successful implementation is a careful selection of problems. Applying knowledge has nothing to do with memorizing / understanding classical or current zoological debates, or with making corroborative exercises. A genuine problem invites students to seek relationships and non-trivial consequences of the knowledge they acquire about phylogeny, diversity, body plans, functional morphology, and life history strategies, particularly when they are applied to animal phyla that are not included in the subject programme. In this presentation we include type problems and describe the schedule, teaching load and methodology that could best fit within a “classical” Zoology programme. The fundamental criterion to evaluate problems is that answers are plausible, though not necessarily correc

The challenge of habitat modelling for threatened low density species using heterogeneous data : the case of Cuvier’s beaked whales in the Mediterranean

We are grateful to the ACCOBAMS Secretariat for their support in this work, including a small grant for the analysis.The Mediterranean population of Cuvieŕs beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), a deep-diving cetacean, is genetically distinct from the Atlantic, and subject to a number of conservation threats, in particular underwater noise. It is also cryptic at the surface and relatively rare, so obtain robust knowledge on distribution and abundance presents unique challenges. Here we use multiplatform and multiyear survey data to analyse the distribution and abundance of this species across the Mediterranean Sea. We use a novel approach combining heterogeneous data gathered with different methods to obtain a single density index for the region. A total of 594,996 km of survey effort and 507 sightings of Cuvier’s beaked whales, from 1990 to 2016, were pooled together from 24 different sources. Data were divided into twelve major groups according to platform height, speed and sea state. Both availability bias and effective strip width were calculated from the sightings with available perpendicular distance data. This was extrapolated to the rest of the sightings for each of the twelve groups. Habitat preference models were fitted into a GAM framework using counts of groups as a response variable with the effective searched area as an offset. Depth, coefficient of variation of depth, longitude and marine regions (as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization) were identified as important predictors. Predicted abundance of groups per grid cell were multiplied by mean group size to obtain a prediction of the abundance of animals. A total abundance of 5799 (CV = 24.0%) animals was estimated for the whole Mediterranean basin. The Alborán Sea, Ligurian Sea, Hellenic Trench, southern Adriatic Sea and eastern Ionian Sea were identified as being the main hot spots in the region. It is important to urge that the relevant stakeholders incorporate this information in the planning and execution of high risk activities in these high-risk areas.PostprintPeer reviewe

Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980�2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015

Background Improving survival and extending the longevity of life for all populations requires timely, robust evidence on local mortality levels and trends. The Global Burden of Disease 2015 Study (GBD 2015) provides a comprehensive assessment of all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. These results informed an in-depth investigation of observed and expected mortality patterns based on sociodemographic measures. Methods We estimated all-cause mortality by age, sex, geography, and year using an improved analytical approach originally developed for GBD 2013 and GBD 2010. Improvements included refinements to the estimation of child and adult mortality and corresponding uncertainty, parameter selection for under-5 mortality synthesis by spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, and sibling history data processing. We also expanded the database of vital registration, survey, and census data to 14�294 geography�year datapoints. For GBD 2015, eight causes, including Ebola virus disease, were added to the previous GBD cause list for mortality. We used six modelling approaches to assess cause-specific mortality, with the Cause of Death Ensemble Model (CODEm) generating estimates for most causes. We used a series of novel analyses to systematically quantify the drivers of trends in mortality across geographies. First, we assessed observed and expected levels and trends of cause-specific mortality as they relate to the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary indicator derived from measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility. Second, we examined factors affecting total mortality patterns through a series of counterfactual scenarios, testing the magnitude by which population growth, population age structures, and epidemiological changes contributed to shifts in mortality. Finally, we attributed changes in life expectancy to changes in cause of death. We documented each step of the GBD 2015 estimation processes, as well as data sources, in accordance with Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Reporting (GATHER). Findings Globally, life expectancy from birth increased from 61·7 years (95 uncertainty interval 61·4�61·9) in 1980 to 71·8 years (71·5�72·2) in 2015. Several countries in sub-Saharan Africa had very large gains in life expectancy from 2005 to 2015, rebounding from an era of exceedingly high loss of life due to HIV/AIDS. At the same time, many geographies saw life expectancy stagnate or decline, particularly for men and in countries with rising mortality from war or interpersonal violence. From 2005 to 2015, male life expectancy in Syria dropped by 11·3 years (3·7�17·4), to 62·6 years (56·5�70·2). Total deaths increased by 4·1 (2·6�5·6) from 2005 to 2015, rising to 55·8 million (54·9 million to 56·6 million) in 2015, but age-standardised death rates fell by 17·0 (15·8�18·1) during this time, underscoring changes in population growth and shifts in global age structures. The result was similar for non-communicable diseases (NCDs), with total deaths from these causes increasing by 14·1 (12·6�16·0) to 39·8 million (39·2 million to 40·5 million) in 2015, whereas age-standardised rates decreased by 13·1 (11·9�14·3). Globally, this mortality pattern emerged for several NCDs, including several types of cancer, ischaemic heart disease, cirrhosis, and Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. By contrast, both total deaths and age-standardised death rates due to communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional conditions significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, gains largely attributable to decreases in mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS (42·1, 39·1�44·6), malaria (43·1, 34·7�51·8), neonatal preterm birth complications (29·8, 24·8�34·9), and maternal disorders (29·1, 19·3�37·1). Progress was slower for several causes, such as lower respiratory infections and nutritional deficiencies, whereas deaths increased for others, including dengue and drug use disorders. Age-standardised death rates due to injuries significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, yet interpersonal violence and war claimed increasingly more lives in some regions, particularly in the Middle East. In 2015, rotaviral enteritis (rotavirus) was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to diarrhoea (146�000 deaths, 118�000�183�000) and pneumococcal pneumonia was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to lower respiratory infections (393�000 deaths, 228�000�532�000), although pathogen-specific mortality varied by region. Globally, the effects of population growth, ageing, and changes in age-standardised death rates substantially differed by cause. Our analyses on the expected associations between cause-specific mortality and SDI show the regular shifts in cause of death composition and population age structure with rising SDI. Country patterns of premature mortality (measured as years of life lost YLLs) and how they differ from the level expected on the basis of SDI alone revealed distinct but highly heterogeneous patterns by region and country or territory. Ischaemic heart disease, stroke, and diabetes were among the leading causes of YLLs in most regions, but in many cases, intraregional results sharply diverged for ratios of observed and expected YLLs based on SDI. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases caused the most YLLs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, with observed YLLs far exceeding expected YLLs for countries in which malaria or HIV/AIDS remained the leading causes of early death. Interpretation At the global scale, age-specific mortality has steadily improved over the past 35 years; this pattern of general progress continued in the past decade. Progress has been faster in most countries than expected on the basis of development measured by the SDI. Against this background of progress, some countries have seen falls in life expectancy, and age-standardised death rates for some causes are increasing. Despite progress in reducing age-standardised death rates, population growth and ageing mean that the number of deaths from most non-communicable causes are increasing in most countries, putting increased demands on health systems. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2016 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY licens

Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality and life expectancy, 1950–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017

BACKGROUND: Assessments of age-specific mortality and life expectancy have been done by the UN Population Division, Department of Economics and Social Affairs (UNPOP), the United States Census Bureau, WHO, and as part of previous iterations of the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD). Previous iterations of the GBD used population estimates from UNPOP, which were not derived in a way that was internally consistent with the estimates of the numbers of deaths in the GBD. The present iteration of the GBD, GBD 2017, improves on previous assessments and provides timely estimates of the mortality experience of populations globally. METHODS: The GBD uses all available data to produce estimates of mortality rates between 1950 and 2017 for 23 age groups, both sexes, and 918 locations, including 195 countries and territories and subnational locations for 16 countries. Data used include vital registration systems, sample registration systems, household surveys (complete birth histories, summary birth histories, sibling histories), censuses (summary birth histories, household deaths), and Demographic Surveillance Sites. In total, this analysis used 8259 data sources. Estimates of the probability of death between birth and the age of 5 years and between ages 15 and 60 years are generated and then input into a model life table system to produce complete life tables for all locations and years. Fatal discontinuities and mortality due to HIV/AIDS are analysed separately and then incorporated into the estimation. We analyse the relationship between age-specific mortality and development status using the Socio-demographic Index, a composite measure based on fertility under the age of 25 years, education, and income. There are four main methodological improvements in GBD 2017 compared with GBD 2016: 622 additional data sources have been incorporated; new estimates of population, generated by the GBD study, are used; statistical methods used in different components of the analysis have been further standardised and improved; and the analysis has been extended backwards in time by two decades to start in 1950. FINDINGS: Globally, 18·7% (95% uncertainty interval 18·4–19·0) of deaths were registered in 1950 and that proportion has been steadily increasing since, with 58·8% (58·2–59·3) of all deaths being registered in 2015. At the global level, between 1950 and 2017, life expectancy increased from 48·1 years (46·5–49·6) to 70·5 years (70·1–70·8) for men and from 52·9 years (51·7–54·0) to 75·6 years (75·3–75·9) for women. Despite this overall progress, there remains substantial variation in life expectancy at birth in 2017, which ranges from 49·1 years (46·5–51·7) for men in the Central African Republic to 87·6 years (86·9–88·1) among women in Singapore. The greatest progress across age groups was for children younger than 5 years; under-5 mortality dropped from 216·0 deaths (196·3–238·1) per 1000 livebirths in 1950 to 38·9 deaths (35·6–42·83) per 1000 livebirths in 2017, with huge reductions across countries. Nevertheless, there were still 5·4 million (5·2–5·6) deaths among children younger than 5 years in the world in 2017. Progress has been less pronounced and more variable for adults, especially for adult males, who had stagnant or increasing mortality rates in several countries. The gap between male and female life expectancy between 1950 and 2017, while relatively stable at the global level, shows distinctive patterns across super-regions and has consistently been the largest in central Europe, eastern Europe, and central Asia, and smallest in south Asia. Performance was also variable across countries and time in observed mortality rates compared with those expected on the basis of development. INTERPRETATION: This analysis of age-sex-specific mortality shows that there are remarkably complex patterns in population mortality across countries. The findings of this study highlight global successes, such as the large decline in under-5 mortality, which reflects significant local, national, and global commitment and investment over several decades. However, they also bring attention to mortality patterns that are a cause for concern, particularly among adult men and, to a lesser extent, women, whose mortality rates have stagnated in many countries over the time period of this study, and in some cases are increasing