We examined the presence of tattoo lesions in 613 small cetaceans belonging to nine species and originating from the Southeast Pacific Ocean, the Southwest and Northeast Atlantic Ocean as well as from the North, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas. Most of the specimens had been caught in nets or were found stranded in the period 1988-2002. Thirty-five bottlenose dolphins from the Sado estuary, Portugal were photographed alive in 1994-1997. Tattoo lesions were detected in 68 of 196 Lagenorhynchus obscurus, 33 of 54 Delphinus capensis, five of 12 Tursiops truncatus, 57 of 95 Phocoena spinipinnis from Peru as well as in 17 of 35 T. truncatus from the Sado estuary, in two of 10 Stenella coeruleoalba and one of four T. truncatus from the Mediterranean Sea. Prevalence of the disease varied significantly between species in mature specimens but not among immatures. It also varied very significantly between inshore (P. spinipinnis and Sado T. truncatus) and offshore or offshore-neritic (S. coeruleoalba, L. obscurus, D. capensis and Peruvian T. truncatus) odontocetes, being higher in adult specimens of inshore (53.5%) than of offshore (29.7%) taxa. This variation may be caused by immunotoxic environmental pollutants of continental origin like organochlorines. The coastal waters of Peru and the Sado estuary suffer from eutrophication and pollution from various origins. Direct correlation with pollutant loads needs to be investigated

Di Beneditto, A.P.

Gaspar, R.

Raga, J.A.

Ramos, R.

Siebert, U.

Van Bressem, M.-F.

Van Waerebeek, K.

Open Marine Archive

SC/55/E1 
 
Tattoo disease of odontocetes as a potential indicator of a 
degrading or stressful environment: a preliminary report 
 
Marie-Françoise Van Bressem1,2, Koen Van Waerebeek1, Juan Antonio Raga3, Raquel Gaspar4,  
Ana Paula Di Beneditto5, Renata Ramos6 and Ursula Siebert7 
 
1 Peruvian Centre for Cetacean Research (CEPEC), Jorge Chávez 302, Pucusana, Lima 20, Peru  
2 Department of Vaccinology-Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart 
Tilman, 4000 Liège, Belgium 
3 Marine Zoology Unit, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, University of 
Valencia, P.O. Box 22085, 46071 Valencia, Spain 
4 Sea Mammal Research Unit, Gatty Marine Laboratory, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife 
KY16 8LB, Scotland, U.K.  
5 Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense, Laboratório de Ciências Ambientais, CBB, Av. Alberto 
Lamego, 2.000 - Campos dos Goytacazes – RJ 28013-600, Brazil  
6 Everest, Av. Nossa Senhora dos Navegantes, 675/1201, Enseada do Suá, Vitória, ES, 29056-900, 
Brazil. 
7 Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum Westküste, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Hafentöern 
D-25761 Büsum, Germany 
 
 
ABSTRACT 
We examined the presence of tattoo lesions in 613 small cetaceans belonging to nine species and originating from 
the Southeast Pacific Ocean, the Southwest and Northeast Atlantic Ocean as well as from the North, Baltic and 
Mediterranean Seas. Most of the specimens had been caught in nets or were found stranded in the period 1988-
2002. Thirty-five bottlenose dolphins from the Sado estuary, Portugal were photographed alive in 1994-1997. 
Tattoo lesions were detected in 68 of 196 Lagenorhynchus obscurus, 33 of 54 Delphinus capensis, five of 12 
Tursiops truncatus, 57 of 95 Phocoena spinipinnis from Peru as well as in 17 of 35 T. truncatus from the Sado 
estuary, in two of 10 Stenella coeruleoalba and one of four T. truncatus from the Mediterranean Sea. Prevalence 
of the disease varied significantly between species in mature specimens but not among immatures. It also varied 
very significantly between inshore (P. spinipinnis and Sado T. truncatus) and offshore or offshore-neritic (S. 
coeruleoalba, L. obscurus, D. capensis and Peruvian T. truncatus) odontocetes, being higher in adult specimens of 
inshore (53.5%) than of offshore (29.7%) taxa. This variation may be caused by immunotoxic environmental 
pollutants of continental origin like organochlorines. The coastal waters of Peru and the Sado estuary suffer from 
eutrophication and pollution from various origins. Direct correlation with pollutant loads needs to be investigated.  
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
Tattoo disease is characterised by very typical, irregular, slightly in relief, grey, black or yellowish skin 
lesions known as "tattoos" that may occur on any part of the body in toothed whales. With some 
practice, tattoos are easily distinguished visually from other types of integument blemishes and scars.  
This skin disease has been observed in several species of free-ranging odontocetes from the North 
Atlantic and East Pacific Oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as in captive bottlenose dolphins 
(Tursiops truncatus) (for a review see Van Bressem et al., 1999).  
 
In the bottlenose dolphin, Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus), dusky dolphin 
(Lagenorhynchus obscurus), long-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus capensis), killer whale (Orcinus 
orca) and Burmeister's porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis) the disease is caused by uncharacterised 
poxviruses (Family Poxviridae) that are possibly antigenically related to cowpox virus, a member of the 
Orthopoxvirus genus (Geraci et al., 1979; Van Bressem et al., 1993, 1998; Van Bressem and Van 
Waerebeek, 1996). It is thought to be endemic in the long-beaked common dolphin, dusky dolphin, 
bottlenose dolphin and Burmeister's porpoise from Peruvian waters as well as in bottlenose dolphin 
from the Sado estuary, Portugal (Van Bressem and Van Waerebeek, 1996; Van Bressem and Gaspar, 
2003). In the dusky dolphin and Burmeister’s porpoise young calves seem to be protected from the 
disease by maternal immunity (Van Bressem and Van Waerebeek, 1996). In the four species from Peru 
 2 
as well as in the Sado bottlenose dolphins the highest prevalence was observed in juveniles, presumably 
after they had lost passive immunity (Van Bressem and Van Waerebeek, 1996; Van Bressem and 
Gaspar, 2003). Though the affliction may last for months and even years in individual Sado bottlenose 
dolphins (and probably in other species), the prevalence of tattoo marks eventually decreases in adult 
Peruvian Delphinidae and apparently in Sado bottlenose dolphins, likely with a gradual development of 
immunity against the poxvirus.  
 
There are no epidemiological studies available of tattoo disease at a global scale and none on the 
possible influence of the environment on its prevalence. However, unpublished results of own research 
and personal communications to the authors suggested prevalence to vary widely between species and 
locations. In search of the causes of such variability, in 1995 we started a worldwide survey on the 
epidemiology and ecology of tattoo disease. Here we present some preliminary results and evaluate the 
potential for the state of the aquatic environment to influence the prevalence of tattoo disease.  
 
MATERIAL AND METHODS 
With the exception of 35 bottlenose dolphins from the Sado estuary which were not captured, the whole 
body surface of 578 small cetaceans was examined for the presence of tattoo lesions. The odontocetes 
belonged to nine species and originated from the Southeast Pacific Ocean, Southwest and Northeast 
Atlantic Ocean as well as from the North, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas. Most had been caught in nets 
or were found stranded in the period 1988-2002 (Table 1). Condition thus varied from alive to early 
decomposed (but with intact skin) and several were frozen before examination. Detection of tattoos in 
free-ranging Sado dolphins was done by examining 586 photographic records taken during small-boat 
surveys. Considering that in these animals generally only upper body parts were visible, the reported 
prevalence should be considered a minimum value.  
 
As prevalence of the disease varies with age, species were divided into sexually immature (calves and 
juveniles) and mature individuals. In the Burmeister’s porpoise and dusky dolphin the immature 
category does not include neonates nor very young calves that do not have tattoo lesions (Van Bressem 
and Van Waerebeek, 1996). Sexual maturity was determined directly from an examination of gonads 
and lactation or was inferred from standard body length and known life history parameters for these 
populations. Maturity in Sado bottlenose dolphins was estimated from size and other external features 
(Van Waerebeek, 1992; Calzada, 1995; Reyes and Van Waerebeek, 1995; Wilson et al., 1999). We 
examined interspecific variation in species with a sufficiently large sample size: Peruvian dusky 
dolphins, long-beaked common dolphins, Burmeister’s porpoises and Sado bottlenose dolphins. We 
further examined variation in prevalence between odontocetes occupying an explicit inshore habitat 
(Burmeister’s porpoises and Sado bottlenose dolphins) versus, combined (further referred to as 
‘offshore’), offshore-neritic (dusky and long-beaked common dolphins) and offshore-oceanic cetaceans 
(Peruvian offshore bottlenose dolphins and Mediterranean striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba)). 
Significance of differences in prevalence (α= 0.05) was verified with chi-square tests.  
 
RESULTS 
Tattoo lesions were detected in 68 of 196 dusky dolphins, 33 of 54 long-beaked common dolphins, five 
of 12 bottlenose dolphins, 57 of 95 Burmeister’s porpoises from Peru (Van Bressem and Van 
Waerebeek, 1996; unpublished data) as well as in 17 of 35 bottlenose dolphins from the Sado estuary, 
in two of 10 striped dolphins and one of four bottlenose dolphins from the Mediterranean Sea (Table 1). 
They were not observed in five species of small cetaceans from the Southwest Atlantic Ocean and the 
North and Baltic Seas (Table 1).  
 
Prevalence of the disease (Table 2) varied significantly between species in mature specimens (χ2 =14. 
35, df= 3, P= 0.0024) but not among immatures (χ2= 5.56, df= 3, P= 0.14). Prevalence of the disease 
varied very significantly (χ2 = 11.56, df= 1, P= 0.0007) between inshore and offshore odontocetes 
(Table 2), being higher in adult specimens of inshore (53.5%) than of offshore (29.7%) taxa. Prevalence 
was also higher in inshore (81.8%) than in offshore immatures (66%; Table 2) but statistical 
significance was borderline (χ2 =3.69, df= 1, P= 0.055).  
 
 3 
DISCUSSION 
The interspecific variation in prevalence of tattoo disease observed among mature dolphins and 
porpoises may be caused in part by a different susceptibility to the poxvirus particular to each species 
but likely reflects also their ability to clear the disease, thus the efficiency of their immune response. 
The significantly higher prevalence in mature specimens of inshore taxa suggests a relatively deficient 
immune function that may be caused by environmental contaminants of continental origin. 
Organochlorines could represent some of these as they are well known to depress the immune system 
and contribute to the severity of diseases (Aguilar and Borrell, 1994; Ross et al., 1996). They may also 
accumulate at higher concentrations in inshore than in offshore species (Smyth et al., 2000). Similarly, 
the significantly higher prevalence of tattoos observed in male Burmeister’s porpoises (Van Bressem 
and Van Waerebeek, 1996) could reflect a higher load of organochlorine pollutants in males than in 
females which has been observed in other species of cetaceans (Aguilar et al., 1999). Agricultural, 
mining and industrial activities in South America are thought to have released vast amounts of 
contaminants into the marine environment (Borrell and Aguilar, 1999). Sewage of various origins is 
still discharged, mostly untreated, in the coastal waters of Peru (own observations). The Sado estuary 
suffers from eutrophication and pollution from mining, industrial and agricultural activities as well as 
from domestic sewage (Harzen, 1995; Ferreira et al., 1989; Bruxelas et al., 1992). Interestingly, no 
tattoo lesions have been noted so far in a resident population of bottlenose dolphins occupying the 
estuary of the Gambia river in The Gambia, West Africa (Van Waerebeek et al., 2002). In the absence 
of industrial activity and large-scale agriculture along the river, contaminant levels are expected to be 
low. However, tattoo disease seems to be entirely absent in several species of odontocetes from other 
areas as well, including the highly-polluted North and Baltic Seas (see Table 1). In both cases, a zero 
prevalence can be easily explained if local populations of odontocetes have not yet been exposed to the 
virus.  
 
Though preliminary, these results suggest that prevalence of tattoo disease may be an indicator of a 
degrading or stressful aquatic environment, which begs further research. Other infectious diseases (e.g. 
bacterial and parasitic pneumonia and generalised bacterial infection) have been shown to be 
significantly associated with chronic exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls in harbour porpoises 
(Phocoena phocoena) from England and Wales (Jepson et al., 1999). High levels of mercury were also 
associated with a significantly higher prevalence of lung lesions in harbour porpoises from German 
waters (North and Baltic Seas) (Siebert et al., 1999).  
 
Further studies will cover more populations, larger samples and also examine variation in the size, 
density and corporeal distribution of the lesions in inshore versus offshore species. Where possible the 
incidence of tattoo disease will be correlated to quantifiable data for organochlorine and heavy metal 
contaminants both in the environment and the tissues of the animals examined.  
 
AKNOWLEDGMENTS 
We kindly thank Celia Agusti for her help in processing the data collected in Mediterranean cetaceans. 
This study was supported by the Cetacean Society International, the ‘Fundação para a Ciência e 
Tecnologia’ from the Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology, the ‘Reserva Natural do Estuário 
do Sado’, ‘KODAK Portuguesa Limited’, the ‘Conselleria de Medio Ambiente de la Generalitat 
Valenciana’, the ‘Ministerio de Medio Ambiente’ (Spain), the Federal Ministry for Education and 
Research (Germany) and the International Whaling Commission (research project SC/52/SM34). 
CEPEC field research was supported by grants from the Gesellschaft zum Schutz der Meeressäugetiere, 
Leopold III Fund for Nature Research and Conservation, IFAW, IUCN Cetacean Specialist Group/SSC 
and the Chicago Zoological Society.  
 
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Species  N spec  Ocean  Sampling  Habitat  Prevalence %     
 examined province period  tattoo disease     
          
Sotalia fluviatilis  80 SW Atlantic 1988-2001 inshore/neritic & estuarine 0     
Pontoporia blainvillei  94 SW Atlantic 1989-2001 inshore/estuarine 0     
Stenella frontalis 8 SW Atlantic 1992-1999 offshore/oceanic 0     
Tursiops truncatus 5 SW Atlantic 1991-1996 offshore/oceanic 0     
Lagenorhynchus obscurus 1 196 SE Pacific 1993-1994 offshore/neritic 34.7     
Delphinus capensis 1 54 SE Pacific 1993-1994 offshore/neritic 61.1     
Tursiops truncatus 1 12 SE Pacific 1993-1994 offshore/oceanic 41.7     
Phocoena spinipinnis 1 , 2 95 SE Pacific 1993-1994 inshore/neritic 60     
Phocoena phocoena 8 Baltic Sea 1991-1995 inshore/neritic 0     
Phocoena phocoena 12 North Sea 1991-1995 inshore/neritic 0     
Tursiops truncatus 35 NE Atlantic 1994-1997 inshore/estuarine 48.6.      
Stenella coeruleoalba 10 Mediterranean  2000-2002 offshore/oceanic 20     
Tursiops truncatus 4 Mediterranean  2000-2002 probably inshore 25     
          
    Table 1.  Characteristics of samples of 13 odontocete populations examined for tattoo skin lesions.  
Source:   1 Van Bressem and Van Waerebeek (1996), 2 Van Bressem and Van Waerebeek, unpublished data.     
     
    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
  Ocean  Sexually  mature  Sexually immature 3   
Species Province N examined N positive Prevalence N examined N positive Prevalence 
           
Offshore or offshore-neritic           
Stenella coeruleoalba Mediterranean 4 0 0% 6 2 33.3% 
Lagenorhynchus obscurus 1 SE Pacific 128 43 33.6% 41 25 61% 
Delphinus capensis 1 SE Pacific 10 1 10% 44 32 72.7% 
Tursiops truncatus 1 SE Pacific 6 0 0% 6 5 83.3% 
           
Inshore            
Phocoena spinipinnis1,2 SE Pacific 46 28 60.9% 34 29 85.3% 
Tursiops truncatus NE Atlantic (Sado estuary) 25 10 40% 10 7 70% 
                
 
Table 2.  Prevalence of tattoo disease according to sexual maturity in samples of six odontocete populations. 
 1 Van Bressem and Van Waerebeek  (1996);  2 unpublished data ;  3 in P.spinipinnis and L.obscurus  the immature   
category does not include neonates nor very young calves.      
        
 


Tattoo disease of odontocetes as a potential indicator of a degrading or stressful environment: a preliminary report. Scientific Committee document SC/55/E1, International Whaling Commission, May-June 2003, Berlin, Germany

Tattoo disease of odontocetes as a potential indicator of a degrading or stressful environment: a preliminary report. Scientific Committee document SC/55/E1, International Whaling Commission, May-June 2003, Berlin, Germany

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