Characterization of soil specific degradation for the northern region of Morocco

L’érosion hydrique est un processus majeur de dégradation des sols. Au Maroc, elle est considérée comme la principale cause de désertification. Elle entraîne une réduction du potentiel productif des sols et l'envasement des retenues de barrages conduisant à une perte du volume d'eau mobilisable et remettant en cause la durabilité de ces ouvrages hydrauliques. Des effets négatifs sont répercutés dans les domaines de la production de l'énergie électrique, de l'approvisionnement en eau potable et de l’irrigation. Face à l’ampleur de ce fléau, le Maroc doit multiplier ses interventions pour évaluer les conséquences de la dégradation des sols et mettre au point des programmes de conservation appropriés. Dans ce contexte, un échantillon de 15 barrages localisés au niveau de la région septentrionale du Maroc a été sélectionné en vue d’analyser l’envasement sur des périodes de 8 à 47 ans. Les données bathymétriques ont été fournies par la DRPE (Direction de la Recherche et de la Planification de l’Eau). Le présent papier a pour objectifs de i) caractériser la Dégradation Spécifique (DS) de la région septentrionale du Maroc à travers l'étude de 15 bassins versants ; ii) d'en déduire une gamme de variabilité de la DS dans cette région et iii) d'évaluer la pertinence de modèles simples basés sur la surface du bassin, ou la combinaison de la surface et de la lame écoulée moyenne annuelle, pour prédire la DS.L’approche adoptée repose sur la confrontation d'une mesure actualisée de la Dégradation Spécifique (DS) dérivée des levés bathymétriques avec des évaluations de cette dernière à l'aide de modèles établis pour prédire l’envasement des barrages au Maroc. L’analyse de l’alluvionnement des retenues de barrages par le dépouillement des levés bathymétriques sur des périodes allant de 8 à 47 ans montre un envasement total moyen annuel d’environ 0,6*109 m3, soit 13 % de la capacité totale initiale qui est de l’ordre de 4,6*109 m3 et une variabilité de la dégradation spécifique allant de 172 à 5365 t km-2an-1, soit un rapport de 1 à 31. Enfin, cette étude montre la très forte variabilité des performances de prédiction de la dégradation spécifique basées sur des modèles simples utilisant la surface de bassin et la lame écoulée. Mots clés : Érosion hydrique, Barrages, Envasement, Dégradation Spécifique, MarocWater erosion is a major process of soil degradation. In Morocco, it is regarded as the principal cause of desertification. It involves a reduction of the production potential of soils and as the silting of dam reservoirs leading to a loss of the amount of mobilizable water and brings up the issue of resilience of these hydraulic infrastructures. Adverse effects are reflected in the domains of energy production and irrigation and drinking water supplies. To face this challenge, Morocco must multiply its interventions to assess the consequences of soil degradation and to develop suitable programs of soil conservation. In this context, a sample of 15 catchment area located in the northern part of Morocco was selected in order to analyze the silting over periods of 8 to 47 years. The bathymetric data was provided by the DRPE (Direction of the Research and the Planning of Water).This paper aims i) to characterize the Specific Degradation (DS) of the northern part of Morocco through the study of 15 catchment areas; ii) to deduce a range of variability from the DS in this area and iii) to assess the relevance of simple models based on basin area, or the combination of basin area and the annual average flow, to predict the DS. The adopted approach is based on the confrontation of a current measurement of the Specific Degradation (DS) derived from the bathymetric surveys with assessments of the latter using models established to predict the silting of dams in Morocco. The analysis of siltation in dam reservoirs by the investigation of bathymetric data over periods from 8 to 47 years, shows an annual average total silting of approximately 0.6*109 m3, that is13% of the initial total capacity which is about 4.6*109 m3 and a variability of the specific degradation ranging from 172 to 5 365 tkm-2yr-1, that is a ratio of1 to 31. To end with, this study shows a significant variability of the performances of prediction of specific degradation based on simple models using the area of watershed and water flow. Key words: Water erosion, Dams, Silting, Specific degradation, Morocc

Techniques de conservation des eaux et des sols au Maroc: Aperçu et perspectives

The natural fragility of the environment (relief with steep slopes, aggressive rain, fragile substrates) associated with human fragility (poverty, insecurity) lead to the development and the extension of soil degradation. Water erosion concerns all Moroccan mountains and affects land productivity. This has prompted farmers to design and implement land management techniques, which optimize water use and promote rainwater harvesting. Land management institutions in these areas have also carried out soil protection and restoration (DRS) and soil and water conservation (SWC) projects for the same purposes. This study aims to inventory most of soil and water conservation techniques in Morocco through a literature review. It tracks a set of techniques adopted by farmers to remedy the lack of agricultural land, to enhance land conservation and improve its productivity. Many traditional soil and water conservation systems have been described and classified according to local water balance, topography, operation and objectives: impluvium runoff management, water infiltration increase, diversion of excess-runoff and runoff energy dissipation. Perhaps there exist still other installations not quoted here. Their effectiveness depends on multiple factors, which vary in time and space such as the climatic conditions (dryness) and socio-economic (emigration of youth). Key words: Water erosion, Soil and water conservation, Traditional water and soil management techniques, Land management, Water harvesting, MoroccoLa fragilité naturelle du milieu (relief accidenté, pluies agressives, substrats fragiles) associée à une fragilité humaine (pauvreté, précarité) conduisent à l’apparition et l’extension de phénomènes de dégradation des sols spectaculaires. L’érosion hydrique concerne affecte la productivité une grande partie des terres marocaines. Cette situation a incité les paysans à concevoir et à réaliser des aménagements pour réduire les pertes de terres, optimiser l’utilisation des eaux et valoriser les eaux pluviales. Des projets de Défense et Restauration des Sols (DRS) et de Conservation des Eaux et des Sols (CES) ont également été conduits par les institutions d’aménagement des terres dans ces zones pour les mêmes objectifs. Cette étude vise, à travers une recherche bibliographique, à inventorier les techniques de conservation des eaux et des sols au Maroc. Elle retrace un ensemble de techniques adoptées par les agriculteurs pour remédier au manque de terres agricoles, leur conservation et l’amélioration de leur productivité. De nombreux systèmes traditionnels de conservation de l’eau et des sols ont été décrits et classés en fonction du bilan hydrique local, de la topographie, de leur fonctionnement et de leurs objectifs : la capture du ruissellement sous impluvium, l’infiltration totale de l’eau, la diversion des excédents d’eau et la dissipation de l’énergie du ruissellement. Il existe peut-être encore d’autres aménagements non cités ici. Leur efficacité dépend de multiples facteurs qui varient dans le temps et dans l’espace comme les conditions climatiques (sécheresse) et socio-économiques (émigration des jeunes). Mots clés: Érosion hydrique, Conservation des eaux et sols, Techniques traditionnelles de gestion de l’eau et du sol, Aménagement et gestion des terres, Collecte des eaux pluviales, Maro

Spatialisation fine des projections climatiques dans le bassin versant du Tleta, Nord Maroc

Local studies of climate change impact require high spatial resolution of climate predictions. Within ALMIRA research project, agronomists and hydrologists wish to integrate climate predictions into their models in order to characterize the behavior of Tleta watershed by 2050. Global and regional climate models can only apprehend it through one or fewer pixels at best. It is also essential to use a statistical downscaling method, which allows for improving spatial resolution. Based on climate predictions from the French ALADIN-Climate model and available climatic series, a processing sequence has been developed to provide spatialized fields of climatic variables over the period 2021-2060 at 1 km² resolution. Keywords: Climate predictions, Spatialization, Nakhla Watershed, Rif, MoroccoLes études locales de l’impact du changement climatique nécessitent des projections climatiques à haute résolution spatiale. Dans le cadre du projet de recherche ALMIRA, les agronomes et hydrologues souhaitent intégrer à leurs modèles des projections climatiques afin de caractériser le fonctionnement du bassin versant du Tleta à l’horizon des années 2050. Les modèles climatiques globaux et régionaux ne peuvent l’appréhender qu’à travers un, voire quelques pixels au mieux. Aussi, il est indispensable de pratiquer une descente d’échelle statistique qui permette d’affiner la résolution spatiale. En s’appuyant sur les projections climatiques issues du modèle français ALADIN-Climat et des sériesclimatiques disponibles, une chaîne de traitements a été développée afin de fournir des champs spatialisés de variables climatiques sur la période 2021-2060 à une maille de 1 km². Mots clés : Projections climatiques, Spatialisation, Bassin versant Nakhla, Rif, Maro

Evaluation Des Performances Du Modele Agro-Hydrologique SWAT à Reproduire Le Fonctionnement Hydrologique Du Bassin Versant Nakhla (Rif occidental, Maroc)

Une compréhension de toutes les composantes du bilan hydrique est indispensable pour raisonner les mesures de gestion rationnelle et durable de la ressource en eau. Malheureusement, plusieurs composantes du bilan hydrique ne sont pas facilement mesurables et le recours à la modélisation est souvent nécessaire. Pour ce faire, le modèle SWAT 2012 (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) a été mis en oeuvre à un pas de temps mensuel et journalier pour évaluer sa capacité à représenter le fonctionnement du bassin versant Nakhla, situé à 20 kilomètres au sud de la ville de Tétouan. Le traitement préalable des données existantes sur le bassin (MNT, pédologie, images satellitaires, données climatiques) a permis de reproduire les caractéristiques naturelles du terrain à une résolution spatiale adaptée aux objectifs de l’étude. La méthodologie adoptée repose sur l’usage du système d’information géographique libre (QGIS) combiné avec le modèle agro-hydrologique SWAT pour effectuer des opérations d’analyse et de modélisation du fonctionnement hydrologique à l’échelle du bassin versant et l’outil SWAT-Cup pour optimiser les opérations d’analyse de sensibilité et d’incertitude. Le processus de calibration est réalisé aux échelles temporelles mensuelle et journalière au niveau de la station Timezouk et au cours de trois périodes : de 1980 à 1983 pour l’initiation, de 1984 à 1987 pour la calibration et de 1988 à 1990 pour la validation. Les résultats obtenus après calage et validation à l’échelle mensuelle montrent une simulation satisfaisante des débits puisque la comparaison des débits mensuels observés et simulés pour la période de calibration a abouti à un NSE de 0,83 et un R2 de 0,88 au niveau de la station Timezouk. Les résultats à l’échelle journalière ne sont pas satisfaisant (NSE< 0.5), ce qui montre que la représentation de la dynamique haute-fréquence des flux d’eau doit encore être améliorée. A comprehension of all the components of water balance is essential for rational and durable management of the water resource. However, the direct assessment of several components of the water balance is very difficult and the use of modeling is often necessary. SWAT 2012 (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model was thus implemented on a monthly and daily time steps to assess his ability to reproduce the hydrological functioning for the Nakhla watershed, which is located at 20 kilometers in the south of the city of Tetouan. Treatment of environmental data (MNT, pedology, satellite imagery and climatic data) allowed to describing the natural characteristic of the field at a resolution adapted to the objectives of the study. Adopted methodology consisted in the combined use of the SWAT agro hydrological model implemented in the QGIS geographical information system open source for operations of analysis and modeling of hydrological processes at the level of the watershed area and of SWAT-CUP tool to optimize the operations of sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. The calibration process was performed on two temporal scales; monthly and daily; and on the stations Timezouk; and over three periods: warm-up period from 1980 to 1983, calibration period from 1984 to 1987, and the validation period from 1988 to 1990. The results acquired after calibration and validation at monthly time step were satisfactory and presented good level of realism in the simulation of the discharge. The comparison of the monthly observed and simulated discharges for the period of calibration gave a NSE of 0.83 and R2 of 0.88 at the Timezouk station. Nevertheless, daily results are not satisfactory (NSE< 0.5), thus further improvements are required to better simulate the processes at a finer time step

Impact Du Changement Climatique Sur L’évolution De L'érosivité Des Pluies Dans Le Rif Occidental (Nord Du Maroc)

The rainfall erosivity factor (R factor in Universal Soil Loss Equation), denoting rain energy, is a key factor for soil loss modeling. Its present and future estimation is thus significant for any action related to soil and water conservation and planning. The extended series of precipitations at high temporal resolution, essential to its evaluation, are not readily available in Morocco. The objective of this study is to predict the evolution of rainfall erosivity by 2080 in the Western Rif, based on predictions of daily rain provided by the General Climatic Models (GCMs). To reflect the seasonal variability of rainfall, and thus of R factor, a series of instantaneous rain measured over 35 consecutive years was used to monthly calibrate a model to calculate erosivity based of daily rainfall. The application of this model to the predictions of different GCMs and for various scenarios of climate evolution in Western Rif shows a weak evolution of erosivity on an annual timescale but a very strong evolution of the latter according to seasons with a reduction in R factor during winter and spring, and a pronounced increase during summer and autumn. This discernable change of the seasonality of rainfall erosivity is very useful for adjusting the evolution of agricultural practices and for selecting appropriate soil protection measures

Distinct and combined impacts of climate and land use scenarios on water availability and sediment loads for a water supply reservoir in northern Morocco

The objective of this study was to examine the impacts of climate and land use changes on water availability and sediment loads for a water supply reservoir in northern Morocco using data-intensive simulation models in a data-scarce region. Impacts were assessed by comparing the simulated water and sediment entering the reservoir between the future period 2031e2050 and the 1983e2010 reference period. Three scenarios of land use change and two scenarios of climate change were developed in the Tleta watershed. Simulations under current and future conditions were performed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The simulations showed that climate change will lead to a significant decrease in the annual water supply to the reservoir ( 16.9% and 27.5%) and in the annual volume of sediment entering the reservoir ( 7.4% and 12.6%), depending on the climate change scenarios tested. The three scenarios of land use change will lead to a moderate change in annual water inflow into the reservoir (between 6.7% and þ6.2%), while causing a significant decrease in sediment entering the reservoir ( 37% to 24%). The combined impacts of climate and land use changes will cause a reduction in annual water availability ( 9.9% to 33.3%) and sediment supplies ( 28.7% to 45.8%). As a result, the lifetime of the reservoir will be extended, but at the same time, the risk of water shortages will increase, especially from July to March. Therefore, alternative water resources must be considered.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

ScenaLand: a simple methodology for developing land use and management scenarios

Scenarios serve science by testing the sensitivity of a system and/or society to adapt to the future. In this study, we present a new land use scenario methodology called ScenaLand. This methodology aims to develop plausible and contrasting land use and management (LUM) scenarios, useful to explore how LUM (e.g. soil and water conservation techniques) may afect ecosystem services under global change in a wide range of environments. ScenaLand is a method for constructing narrative and spatially explicit land use scenarios that are useful for end-users and impact modellers. This method is innovative because it merges literature and expert knowledge, and its low data requirement makes it easy to be implemented in the context of inter-site comparison, including global change projections. ScenaLand was developed and tested on six diferent Mediterranean agroecological and socioeconomic contexts during the MASCC research project (Mediterranean agricultural soil conservation under global change). The method frst highlights the socioeconomic trends of each study site including emerging trends such as new government laws, LUM techniques through a qualitative survey addressed to local experts. Then, the method includes a ranking of driving factors, a matrix about land use evolution, and soil and water conservation techniques. ScenaLand also includes a framework to develop narratives along with two priority axes (contextualized to environmental protection vs. land productivity in this study). In the context of this research project, four contrasting scenarios are proposed: S1 (business-as-usual), S2 (market-oriented), S3 (environmental protection), and S4 (sustainable). Land use maps are then built with the creation of LUM allocation rules based on agroecological zoning. ScenaLand resulted in a robust and easy method to apply with the creation of 24 contrasted scenarios. These scenarios come not only with narratives but also with spatially explicit maps that are potentially used by impact modellers and other endusers. The last part of our study discusses the way the method can be implemented including a comparison between sites and the possibilities to implement ScenaLand in other contexts.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Relationship of Weather Types on the Seasonal and Spatial Variability of Rainfall, Runoff, and Sediment Yield in the Western Mediterranean Basin

Rainfall is the key factor to understand soil erosion processes, mechanisms, and rates. Most research was conducted to determine rainfall characteristics and their relationship with soil erosion (erosivity) but there is little information about how atmospheric patterns control soil losses, and this is important to enable sustainable environmental planning and risk prevention. We investigated the temporal and spatial variability of the relationships of rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield with atmospheric patterns (weather types, WTs) in the western Mediterranean basin. For this purpose, we analyzed a large database of rainfall events collected between 1985 and 2015 in 46 experimental plots and catchments with the aim to: (i) evaluate seasonal differences in the contribution of rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield produced by the WTs; and (ii) to analyze the seasonal efficiency of the different WTs (relation frequency and magnitude) related to rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield. The results indicate two different temporal patterns: the first weather type exhibits (during the cold period: autumn and winter) westerly flows that produce the highest rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield values throughout the territory; the second weather type exhibits easterly flows that predominate during the warm period (spring and summer) and it is located on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula. However, the cyclonic situations present high frequency throughout the whole year with a large influence extended around the western Mediterranean basin. Contrary, the anticyclonic situations, despite of its high frequency, do not contribute significantly to the total rainfall, runoff, and sediment (showing the lowest efficiency) because of atmospheric stability that currently characterize this atmospheric pattern. Our approach helps to better understand the relationship of WTs on the seasonal and spatial variability of rainfall, runoff and sediment yield with a regional scale based on the large dataset and number of soil erosion experimental stations.Spanish Government (Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, MINECO) and FEDER Projects: CGL2014 52135-C3-3-R, ESP2017-89463-C3-3-R, CGL2014-59946-R, CGL2015-65569-R, CGL2015-64284-C2-2-R, CGL2015-64284-C2-1-R, CGL2016-78075-P, GL2008-02879/BTE, LEDDRA 243857, RECARE-FP7, CGL2017-83866-C3-1-R, and PCIN-2017-061/AEI. Dhais Peña-Angulo received a “Juan de la Cierva” postdoctoral contract (FJCI-2017-33652 Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, MEC). Ana Lucia acknowledge the "Brigitte-Schlieben-Lange-Programm". The “Geoenvironmental Processes and Global Change” (E02_17R) was financed by the Aragón Government and the European Social Fund. José Andrés López-Tarazón acknowledges the Secretariat for Universities and Research of the Department of the Economy and Knowledge of the Autonomous Government of Catalonia for supporting the Consolidated Research Group 2014 SGR 645 (RIUS- Fluvial Dynamics Research Group). Artemi Cerdà thank the funding of the OCDE TAD/CRP JA00088807. José Martínez-Fernandez acknowledges the project Unidad de Excelencia CLU-2018-04 co-funded by FEDER and Castilla y León Government. Ane Zabaleta is supported by the Hydro-Environmental Processes consolidated research group (IT1029-16, Basque Government). This paper has the benefit of the Lab and Field Data Pool created within the framework of the COST action CONNECTEUR (ES1306)

Relationship of Weather Types on the Seasonal and Spatial Variability of Rainfall, Runoff, and Sediment Yield in the Western Mediterranean Basin

Rainfall is the key factor to understand soil erosion processes, mechanisms, and rates. Most research was conducted to determine rainfall characteristics and their relationship with soil erosion (erosivity) but there is little information about how atmospheric patterns control soil losses, and this is important to enable sustainable environmental planning and risk prevention. We investigated the temporal and spatial variability of the relationships of rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield with atmospheric patterns (weather types, WTs) in the western Mediterranean basin. For this purpose, we analyzed a large database of rainfall events collected between 1985 and 2015 in 46 experimental plots and catchments with the aim to: (i) evaluate seasonal differences in the contribution of rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield produced by the WTs; and (ii) to analyze the seasonal efficiency of the different WTs (relation frequency and magnitude) related to rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield. The results indicate two different temporal patterns: the first weather type exhibits (during the cold period: autumn and winter) westerly flows that produce the highest rainfall, runoff, and sediment yield values throughout the territory; the second weather type exhibits easterly flows that predominate during the warm period (spring and summer) and it is located on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula. However, the cyclonic situations present high frequency throughout the whole year with a large influence extended around the western Mediterranean basin. Contrary, the anticyclonic situations, despite of its high frequency, do not contribute significantly to the total rainfall, runoff, and sediment (showing the lowest efficiency) because of atmospheric stability that currently characterize this atmospheric pattern. Our approach helps to better understand the relationship of WTs on the seasonal and spatial variability of rainfall, runoff and sediment yield with a regional scale based on the large dataset and number of soil erosion experimental stations