Exchange Rate Volatility and the Nigerian Balance Of Payments (1981-2016)

The paper investigates the impact of exchange rate volatility on balance of payments in Nigeria using data from 1981 to 2016. The main objective of this study is to examine the extent to which exchange rate volatility measures have influenced the Balance of Payment (BOP) position in Nigeria during the period under study. The study utilized aggregate annual data from 1981 to 2016. The data was analysed with the co-integration/error correction model (ECM) method. The test for stationary using Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) showed that all the variables were not stationary in levels but were stationary in first difference. The Johansen-Juselius co-integration techniques were employed in testing for long run equilibrium relationship among the variables and the results indicated that co-integrating relationship was found among the variables. Findings from this study indicate that the systematic variation in the dependent variable (BOP) is explained by the four independent variables including nominal exchange rate, inflation rate, real interest rate and government expenditure. The result also reveals that there is long run relationship between exchange rate volatility and BOP. The paper concluded discouragement of over-reliance on imported goods and the promotion of domestic export produce is very imperative. This can only be achieved if the Nigerian economy is diversified and entrepreneurial development promoted in the country. In addition, the government should encourage export promotion strategies in order to maintain a surplus balance of trade which will help make the domestic currency strong and also prevent further depreciation of the Nigeria Naira

Profile and genetic parameters of dairy cattle locomotion score and lameness across lactation

This study investigated the profile of locomotion score and lameness before the first calving and throughout the first (n=237) and second (n=66) lactation of 303 Holstein cows raised on a commercial farm. Weekly heritability estimates of locomotion score and lameness, and their genetic and phenotypic correlations with milk yield, body condition score, BW and reproduction traits were derived. Daughter future locomotion score and lameness predictions from their sires’ breeding values for conformation traits were also calculated. First-lactation cows were monitored weekly from 6 weeks before calving to the end of lactation. Second-lactation cows were monitored weekly throughout lactation. Cows were locomotion scored on a scale from one (sound) to five (severely lame); a score greater than or equal to two defined presence of lameness. Cows’ weekly body condition score and BW was also recorded. These records were matched to corresponding milk yield records, where the latter were 7-day averages on the week of inspection. The total number of repeated records amounted to 12 221. Data were also matched to the farm’s reproduction database, from which five traits were derived. Statistical analyses were based on uni- and bivariate random regression models. The profile analysis showed that locomotion and lameness problems in first lactation were fewer before and immediately after calving, and increased as lactation progressed. The profile of the two traits remained relatively constant across the second lactation. Highest heritability estimates were observed in the weeks before first calving (0.66 for locomotion score and 0.54 for lameness). Statistically significant genetic correlations were found for first lactation weekly locomotion score and lameness with body condition score, ranging from −0.31 to −0.65 and from −0.44 to −0.76, respectively, suggesting that cows genetically pre-disposed for high body condition score have fewer locomotion and lameness issues. Negative (favourable) phenotypic correlations between first lactation weekly locomotion score/lameness and milk yield averaged −0.27 and −0.17, respectively, and were attributed to management factors. Also a phenotypic correlation between lameness and conception rate of −0.19 indicated that lame cows were associated with lower success at conceiving. First-lactation daughter locomotion score and/or lameness predictions from sires’ estimated breeding values for conformation traits revealed a significant linear effect of rear leg side view, rear leg rear view, overall conformation, body condition score and locomotion, and a quadratic effect of foot angle

Lameness in dairy heifers; impacts of hoof lesions present around first calving on future lameness, milk yield and culling risk

The importance of lameness in primiparous dairy heifers is increasingly recognised. Although it is accepted that clinical lameness in any lactation increases the risk of future lameness, the impact of foot lesions during the first lactation on long-term lameness risk is less clear. This retrospective cohort study aimed to investigate the impacts of foot lesions occurring around the time of first calving in heifers on future lameness risk, daily milk yield and survival within a dairy herd. Records were obtained for 158 heifers from one UK dairy herd. Heifers were examined in 2 month blocks from 2 months pre-calving through to 4 months post-calving. Sole lesions and white line lesions were scored on a zero to 10 scale and digital dermatitis on a zero to 3 scale. Outcomes investigated were; lameness risk based on weekly locomotion scores, average daily milk yield and culling risk. Mixed effect models were used to investigate associations between maximum lesion scores and outcomes. Lesion scores in the highest score categories for claw horn lesions (sole lesions and white line lesions) in the 2 to 4 month post-calving period were associated with an increased risk of future lameness; heifers with white line lesion scores ≥3 compared with scores zero to 1 and heifers with sole lesion scores ≥4 compared with score 2, at this time point, had a predicted increased risk of future lameness of 1.6 and 2.6 respectively. Sole lesions ≥4 were also associated with a reduction in average daily milk yield of 2.68 kg. Managing heifers to reduce claw horn lesions during this time period post-calving may provide health, welfare and production benefits for the long-term future of those animals. A novel finding from the study was that mild lesion scores compared with scores zero to 1, were associated with a reduced risk of future lameness for white line lesions and sole lesions occurring in the pre-calving or 2 to 4 months post-calving periods respectively. Mild sole lesions in the pre-calving period were also associated with a reduced risk of premature culling. One hypothesis for this result is that a mild insult may result in adaptive changes to the foot leading to greater biomechanical resilience and so increased longevity

Behavioural responses of pasture based dairy cows to short term management in tie-stalls

peer-reviewedDairy cows in experimental grazing herds are often confined for metabolic measurements. The objective of this study was to establish effects of transfer from pasture, to tie-stalls in a metabolism house, then back to pasture, on lying behaviour and locomotion score of lactating cows: Holstein-Friesian (H, n = 16), Jersey (J, n = 16) and H × J (HJ, n = 16). Cows were transferred to tie-stalls on d 1 for 12 days, and were offered freshly cut ryegrass according to herbage allowance (HERB) and genotype: J low = 14; J high = 17; H and HJ low = 16; and H and HJ high = 20 kg DM/d. Lying behaviour was recorded on four days: −2, −1 (Pre-confinement), 3 (Early confinement), 10, 11 (Late confinement), 13 and 14 (Post-confinement) relative to transfer (d 1) using dataloggers, and was also video-recorded during the first 15 h. Locomotion score was recorded on days −4, −3, 12 and 16. No effects of HERB on lying variables were observed during the first 15 h in confinement, but J cows made more lying intentions (21.0 vs. 12.2; P < 0.05) and tended (P = 0.07) to have a shorter latency to lie. Cows spent less (P < 0.001) time lying in early confinement (07:22:29 h/d) than on any of the other occasions (9:12:50 h/d). Cows had more (P < 0.001) and shorter (P < 0.001) lying bouts in confinement than while at pasture. Low HERB cows spent more time lying than high HERB cows (09:54:55 vs. 09:09:33 h/d; P < 0.01). J had higher locomotion scores than H (9.2 ± 0.2 vs.7.8 ± 0.2; P < 0.001), and tended (P = 0.09) to have higher scores than HJ (8.5 ± 0.2) cows. Locomotion scores were lowest pre confinement, highest at turnout (d 12), and intermediate after that at pasture (d 16) (7.6 ± 0.2, 9.3 ± 0.2 and 8.6 ± 0.3, respectively; P < 0.01). On transfer to the metabolism house cows showed disrupted patterns of lying although daily lying time returned to levels similar to pasture by late confinement. Confinement also resulted in a short-term deterioration in locomotory ability, which although improving, was still evident 4 days following the cows return to pasture with Jersey cows being more affected than the other genotypes. These findings suggest that longer adaptation periods and temporary release to loafing areas may improve both the validity of data collected and cow welfare

Impact of lameness and claw lesions in cows on health and production

Lameness is one of the most important endemic diseases of cattle, particularly in the dairy sector. It has a significant impact on health and welfare and leads to a range of production losses. This article reviews the English language peer reviewed literature on the impacts of lameness in cattle on measures of health and production. There is a wealth of evidence from around the world demonstrating that lameness reduces milk yield. The extent of the reductions identified is difficult to summarise, however when losses have been calculated across a whole lactation, most are between 270 and 574kg. It is noteworthy that there is now strong evidence that lameness is a disease of high milk production i.e. high yielding animals are more likely to become lame. The impacts of lameness on nutrition and body condition appear complex. Overall the literature suggests that lameness leads to a reduction in the time spent feeding. A positive correlation between low body condition score and lameness has been demonstrated in a range of studies. Historically it was considered that lame cows lost weight as a consequence of the largely negative impacts of disease, on nutrition. Increasingly, evidence is appearing which suggests that the association between body condition score and lameness may in fact be the other way around i.e. high yielding cows which loose body condition during periods of negative energy balance become lame. The effect of lameness on fertility, measured in studies from around the world, is unequivocal. Lameness has substantial negative effects on fertility performance and reproductive parameters across a wide range of areas. Evidence on the association between lameness and culling is mixed. The majority of published work suggests that animals which suffer from lameness are more likely to be culled, although the converse has also been demonstrated. A review of the literature in this area demonstrates just how substantial the negative effects of lameness are on cattle health and production. The impacts are wide ranging and significant from both a welfare and an economic performance perspective. Further work is urgently required to control this important and prevalent condition

Use of statistical modelling to investigate the pathogenesis of claw horn disruption lesions in dairy cattle

Claw horn disruption lesions (CHDLs) in dairy cattle account for a large proportion of lameness. The aim of this review is to provide an update on the evidence surrounding the pathogenesis of CHDLs, in the context of how statistical modelling has contributed to the validity of available evidence and current thinking. Historically, ‘subclinical laminitis’ has often been used to describe the commonly accepted underlying pathology associated with these lesions, however progress in understanding the aetiopathogenesis of CHDLs and a lack of clear evidence to support the traditional laminitis hypothesis, means use of this terminology has been challenged. With advancements in statistical modelling capabilities within the veterinary field, the multifactorial and complex nature of CHDLs can be more fully explored. This has led to an increased understanding of environmental and animal-based risk factors and their role in the pathogenesis of CHDLs, as well as highlighting future research areas. There is still a need for further research using intervention studies to demonstrate causality for identified risk factors to date, as well as quantifying the impact of these risk factors at the population level. Some important considerations when using and interpreting statistical models in lameness research are discussed with a critical assessment of the key statistical issues in published research investigating the pathogenesis of CHDLs