529 research outputs found
The initial conditions of stellar protocluster formation. II. A catalogue of starless and protostellar clumps embedded in IRDCs in the Galactic longitude range 15<l<55
We present a catalogue of starless and protostellar clumps associated with
infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) in a 40 degrees wide region of the inner Galactic
Plane (b<1). We have extracted the far-infrared (FIR) counterparts of 3493
IRDCs with known distance in the Galactic longitude range 15<l<55 and searched
for the young clumps using Hi-GAL, the survey of the Galactic Plane carried out
with the Herschel satellite. Each clump is identified as a compact source
detected at 160, 250 and 350 mum. The clumps have been classified as
protostellar or starless, based on their emission (or lack of emission) at 70
mum. We identify 1723 clumps, 1056 (61%) of which are protostellar and 667
(39%) starless. These clumps are found within 764 different IRDCs, 375 (49%) of
which are only associated with protostellar clumps, 178 (23%) only with
starless clumps, and 211 (28%) with both categories of clumps. The clumps have
a median mass of 250 M_sun and range up to >10^4$ M_sun in mass and up to 10^5
L_sun in luminosity. The mass-radius distribution shows that almost 30% of the
starless clumps identified in this survey could form high-mass stars, however
these massive clumps are confined in only ~4% of the IRDCs. Assuming a minimum
mass surface density threshold for the formation of high-mass stars, the
comparison of the numbers of massive starless clumps and those already
containing embedded sources suggests an upper limit lifetime for the starless
phase of 10^5 years for clumps with a mass M>500 M_sun.Comment: accepted for publication in MNRAS. Online catalogues available soon,
please contact the authors if intereste
Massive 70 micron quiet clumps I: evidence of embedded low/intermediate-mass star formation activity
Massive clumps, prior to the formation of any visible protostars, are the
best candidates to search for the elusive massive starless cores. In this work
we investigate the dust and gas properties of massive clumps selected to be 70
micron quiet, therefore good starless candidates. Our sample of 18 clumps has
masses 300 < M < 3000 M_sun, radius 0.54 < R < 1.00 pc, surface densities Sigma
> 0.05 g cm^-2 and luminosity/mass ratio L/M < 0.3. We show that half of these
70 micron quiet clumps embed faint 24 micron sources. Comparison with GLIMPSE
counterparts shows that 5 clumps embed young stars of intermediate stellar mass
up to ~5.5 M_sun. We study the clump dynamics with observations of N2H+ (1-0),
HNC (1-0) and HCO+ (1-0) made with the IRAM 30m telescope. Seven clumps have
blue-shifted spectra compatible with infall signatures, for which we estimate a
mass accretion rate 0.04 < M_dot < 2.0 x 10^-3 M_sun yr^-1, comparable with
values found in high-mass protostellar regions, and free-fall time of the order
of t_ff = 3 x 10^5 yr. The only appreciable difference we find between objects
with and without embedded 24 micron sources is that the infall rate appears to
increase from 24 micron dark to 24 micron bright objects. We conclude that all
70 micron quiet objects have similar properties on clump scales, independently
of the presence of an embedded protostar. Based on our data we speculate that
the majority, if not all of these clumps may already embed faint, low-mass
protostellar cores. If these clumps are to form massive stars, this must occur
after the formation of these lower mass stars.Comment: 44 pages, 11 Figures. Accepted for publication in MNRA
Tightening the belt: Constraining the mass and evolution in SDC335
Recent ALMA observations identified one of the most massive star-forming
cores yet observed in the Milky Way; SDC335-MM1, within the infrared dark cloud
SDC335.579-0.292. Along with an accompanying core MM2, SDC335 appears to be in
the early stages of its star formation process. In this paper we aim to
constrain the properties of the stars forming within these two massive
millimetre sources. Observations of SDC335 at 6, 8, 23 and 25GHz were made with
the ATCA. We report the results of these continuum measurements, which combined
with archival data, allow us to build and analyse the spectral energy
distributions (SEDs) of the compact sources in SDC335. Three HCHII regions
within SDC335 are identified, two within the MM1 core. For each HCHII region, a
free-free emission curve is fit to the data allowing the derivation of the
sources' emission measure, ionising photon flux and electron density. Using
these physical properties we assign each HCHII region a ZAMS spectral type,
finding two protostars with characteristics of spectral type B1.5 and one with
a lower limit of B1-B1.5. Ancillary data from infrared to mm wavelength are
used to construct free-free component subtracted SEDs for the mm-cores,
allowing calculation of the bolometric luminosities and revision of the
previous gas mass estimates. The measured luminosities for the two mm-cores are
lower than expected from accreting sources displaying characteristics of the
ZAMS spectral type assigned to them. The protostars are still actively
accreting, suggesting that a mechanism is limiting the accretion luminosity, we
present the case for two different mechanisms capable of causing this. Finally,
using the ZAMS mass values as lower limit constraints, a final stellar
population for SDC335 was synthesised finding SDC335 is likely to be in the
process of forming a stellar cluster comparable to the Trapezium Cluster and
NGC6334 I(N).Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures. Accepted for publication in A&
The initial conditions for stellar protocluster formation
Context. Galactic plane surveys of pristine molecular clouds are key for establishing a Galactic-scale view of star formation. For this reason, an unbiased sample of infrared dark clouds in the 10◦ < |l| < 65◦, |b| < 1◦ region of the Galactic plane was built using Spitzer 8 µm extinction. However, intrinsic fluctuations in the mid-infrared background can be misinterpreted as foreground clouds.
Aims. The main goal of this study is to disentangle real clouds in the Spitzer Dark Cloud (SDC) catalogue from artefacts due to fluctuations in the mid-infrared background.
Methods. We constructed H2 column density maps at ∼1811 resolution using the 160 µm and 250 µm data from the Herschel Galactic plane survey Hi-GAL. We also developed an automated detection scheme that confirms the existence of a SDC through its association
with a peak on these Herschel column density maps. Detection simulations, along with visual inspection of a small sub-sample of SDCs, have been performed to get more insight into the limitations of our automated identification scheme.
Results. Our analysis shows that 76(±19)% of the catalogued SDCs are real. This fraction drops to 55(±12)% for clouds with angular diameters larger than ∼1 arcmin. The contamination of the PF09 catalogue by large spurious sources reflects the large uncertainties associated to the construction of the 8 µm background emission, a key stage in identiying SDCs. A comparison of the Herschel
confirmed SDC sample with the BGPS and ATLASGAL samples shows that SDCs probe a unique range of cloud properties, reaching down to more compact and lower column density clouds than any of these two (sub-)millimetre Galactic plane surveys.
Conclusions. Even though about half of the large SDCs are spurious sources, the vast majority of the catalogued SDCs do have a Herschel counterpart. The Herschel-confirmed sample of SDCs offers a unique opportunity to study the earliest stages of both low- and high-mass star formation across the Galaxy
A statistical study of the mass and density structure of Infrared Dark Clouds
How and when the mass distribution of stars in the Galaxy is set is one of
the main issues of modern astronomy. Here we present a statistical study of
mass and density distributions of infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) and fragments
within them. These regions are pristine molecular gas structures and
progenitors of stars and so provide insights into the initial conditions of
star formation. This study makes use of a IRDC catalogue (Peretto & Fuller
2009), the largest sample of IRDC column density maps to date, containing a
total of ~11,000 IRDCs with column densities exceeding N_{H2} = 1 X10^{22}
cm^{-2} and over 50,000 single peaked IRDC fragments. The large number of
objects constitutes an important strength of this study, allowing detailed
analysis of the completeness of the sample and so statistically robust
conclusions. Using a statistical approach to assigning distances to clouds, the
mass and density distributions of the clouds and the fragments within them are
constructed. The mass distributions show a steepening of the slope when
switching from IRDCs to fragments, in agreement with previous results of
similar structures. IRDCs and fragments are divided into unbound/bound objects
by assuming Larson's relation and calculating their virial parameter. IRDCs are
mostly gravitationally bound, while a significant fraction of the fragments are
not. The density distribution of gravitationally unbound fragments shows a
steep characteristic slope. (see paper for full Abstract).Comment: 15 pages, accepted for publication in Ap
Characterizing precursors to stellar clusters with Herschel
Context. Despite their profound effect on the universe, the formation of massive stars and stellar clusters remains elusive. Recent advances in observing facilities and computing power have brought us closer to understanding this formation process. In the past decade, compelling evidence has emerged that suggests infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) may be precursors to stellar clusters. However, the usual method for identifying IRDCs is biased by the requirement that they are seen in absorption against background mid-IR emission, whereas dust continuum observations allow cold, dense pre-stellar-clusters to be identified anywhere. Aims: We aim to understand what dust temperatures and column densities characterize and distinguish IRDCs, to explore the population of dust continuum sources that are not IRDCs, and to roughly characterize the level of star formation activity in these dust continuum sources. Methods: We use Hi-GAL 70 to 500 m bright sources at the warmest. Finally, we identify five candidate IRDC-like sources on the far-side of the Galaxy. These are cold (20 K), high column density (N(H) gt 10 cm) clouds identified with Hi-GAL which, despite bright surrounding mid-IR emission, show little to no absorption at 8 $m. These are the first inner Galaxy far-side candidate IRDCs of which the authors are aware. Herschel in an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation by NASA.The FITS files discussed in the paper would be released publicly WITH the Hi-GAL data (on the Hi-GAL website) when the Hi-GAL data is released publicly.Peer reviewe
Witnessing the fragmentation of a filament into prestellar cores in Orion B/NGC 2024
Recent Herschel observations of nearby clouds have shown that filamentary
structures are ubiquitous and that most prestellar cores form in filaments.
Probing the density () and velocity () structure of filaments is crucial
for the understanding of the star formation process. To characterize both the
and the field of a fragmenting filament, we mapped NGC2024. 13CO, C18O,
and H13CO+ trace the filament seen in the data. The radial profile
from the data shows ~0.081 pc, which is similar to the
Herschel findings. The from 13CO and C18O are broader, while the
from H13CO+ is narrower, than from Herschel. These results
suggest that 13CO and C18O trace only the outer part of the filament and H13CO+
only the inner part. The H13CO+ map reveals gradients along
both filament axis, as well as oscillations with a period ~0.2 pc
along the major axis. Comparison between the and the distribution shows
a tentative /4 shift in H13CO+ or C18O. This /4 shift is not
simultaneously observed for all cores in any single tracer but is tentatively
seen in either H13CO+ or C18O. We produced a toy model taking into account a
transverse gradient, a longitudinal gradient, and a longitudinal
oscillation mode caused by fragmentation. Examination of synthetic data shows
that the oscillation component produces an oscillation pattern in the velocity
structure function (VSF) of the model. The H13CO+ VSF shows an oscillation
pattern, suggesting that our observations are partly tracing core-forming
motions and fragmentation. We also found that the mean corresponds
to the effective in the filament. This is consistent with a scenario
in which higher-mass cores form in higher line-mass filaments.Comment: accepted in A&
Probing the formation of intermediate- to high-mass stars in protoclusters II. Comparison between millimeter interferometric observations of NGC 2264-C and SPH simulations of a collapsing clump
The earliest phases of massive star formation in clusters are still poorly
understood. Here, we test the hypothesis for high-mass star formation proposed
in our earlier paper (Peretto et al. 2006). In order to confirm the physical
validity of this hypothesis, we carried out IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer
observations of NGC 2264-C and performed SPH numerical simulations of the
collapse of a Jeans-unstable, prolate dense clump. Our Plateau de Bure
observations reveal the presence of a new compact source (C-MM13) located only
\~ 10000 AU away, but separated by ~ 1.1 km/s in (projected) velocity, from the
most massive Class 0 object (C-MM3) lying at the very center of NGC 2264-C.
Detailed comparison with our numerical SPH simulations supports the view that
NGC 2264-C is an elongated cluster-forming clump in the process of collapsing
and fragmenting along its long axis, leading to a strong dynamical interaction
and possible protostar merger in the central region of the clump. The present
study also sets several quantitative constraints on the initial conditions of
large-scale collapse in NGC 2264-C. Our hydrodynamic simulations indicate that
the observed velocity pattern characterizes an early phase of protocluster
collapse which survives for an only short period of time (i.e., < 10^5 yr). To
provide a good match to the observations the simulations require an initial
ratio of turbulent to gravitational energy of only ~ 5 %, which strongly
suggests that the NGC 2264-C clump is structured primarily by gravity rather
than turbulence. The required "cold'' initial conditions may result from rapid
compression by an external trigger.Comment: 15 pages, 8 figures, accepted for publication in A&
The initial conditions of star formation in the Ophiuchus main cloud: Kinematics of the protocluster condensations
The earliest phases of clustered star formation and the origin of the stellar
initial mass function (IMF) are currently much debated. In order to constrain
the origin of the IMF, we investigated the internal and relative motions of
starless condensations and protostars previously detected by us in the dust
continuum at 1.2mm in the L1688 protocluster of the Ophiuchus molecular cloud
complex. The starless condensations have a mass spectrum resembling the IMF and
are therefore likely representative of the initial stages of star formation in
the protocluster. We carried out detailed molecular line observations,
including some N2H+(1-0) mapping, of the Ophiuchus protocluster condensations
using the IRAM 30m telescope. We measured subsonic or at most transonic levels
of internal turbulence within the condensations, implying virial masses which
generally agree within a factor of ~ 2 with the masses derived from the 1.2mm
dust continuum. This supports the notion that most of the L1688 starless
condensations are gravitationally bound and prestellar in nature. We measured a
global one-dimensional velocity dispersion of less than 0.4 km/s between
condensations. This small relative velocity dispersion implies that, in
general, the condensations do not have time to interact with one another before
evolving into pre-main sequence objects. Our observations support the view that
the IMF is partly determined by cloud fragmentation at the prestellar stage.
Competitive accretion is unlikely to be the dominant mechanism at the
protostellar stage in the Ophiuchus protocluster, but it may possibly govern
the growth of starless, self-gravitating condensations initially produced by
gravoturbulent fragmentation toward an IMF, Salpeter-like mass spectrum.Comment: 17 pages, 8 figures. A&A, in press (v2: notes added to Table 3
Performance prediction of a reciprocating piston expander with semi-empirical models
Abstract The aim of this study is to characterize a prototype of reciprocating piston expander integrated into a micro-ORC system test bench (in the kW range of power), installed at the laboratory of the university of Bologna. In order to simulate behavior and performances of the expander in not yet explored operating conditions, two semi-empirical models proposed in the literature have been opportunely adapted to the case of study and calibrated over a full set of available experimental data. One model is based on polynomial correlations on the expander efficiencies, whereas the other one is based on a lumped parameters approach with a more physical sense. Both the models have been evaluated on the error on predict the outputs and compared into performance prediction maps. The preliminary results demonstrate that the polynomial fitting functions model is the most accurate in predicting the outputs in the range of the explored working conditions. However, in order to verify the models extrapolation capability, more experimental points should be collected. The validation of the models outside the calibration range will be object of further investigations
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