Evaluación de Subproductos de Cloración y su efecto mutagénico en agua para consumo humano

Proyecto de Investigación Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica. Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Extensión (VIE). Escuela de Química. Centro de Investigación y de Servicios Químicos y Microbiológicos (CEQIATEC), Centro de Investigación en Protección Ambiental (CIPA), 2013Se investigó la presencia de subproductos de desinfección como trihalometanos (THMs) por medio de la técnica de microextracción en fase sólida (HEADSPACE / SPME Solid Fase Microextraction / GS-MS), utilizando un Cromatógrafo de Gases Varian 450 acoplado a Espectrómetro de Masas. Se analizaron en total 39 muestras de agua, provenientes de fuentes de agua subterránea (nacientes) administradas por la Municipalidad del Cantón Central de Cartago y agua de origen superficial (Plantas de tratamiento completo) dispensada por los sistemas de Tratamiento de AyA/Cantón Central de Cartago, y los Sistema de Tratamiento de AyA de Moravia, Guadalupe y Pavas, con un total de 156 subproductos determinados y cuantificados correspondiendo estos a: cloroformo, bromodiclorometano, dibromoclorometano y tribromoclorometano. En las muestras de agua de sistemas de tratamiento completo se encontró que de 80 subproductos analizados, 12 de estos superaron el máximo admisible de acuerdo al Reglamento Nacional de Calidad de Agua para consumo humano, mientras que de los acueductos abastecidos de aguas subterráneas administrados por la Municipalidad de Cartago, de 76 subproductos analizados solo uno de ellos superó el valor máximo permitido. Los trihalometanos encontrados de acuerdo a la Agencia Internacional de Investigación en Cáncer (por sus siglas en inglés IARC) se ubican en el grupo 2 B con evidencia de producir cáncer en animales. Se encontró gran variación de la presencia de estos subproductos en las muestras de agua de los abastecimientos que corresponden a agua con tratamiento completo (agua superficial tratada) correlacionando con lo reportado ya en la literatura, no obstante se reportó por primera vez la casi ausencia total de subproductos en cantidades que superen los máximos permitidos en aguas de origen subterráneo correlacionando con menor cantidad de carbono orgánico total, menor cantidad de cloro agregado (cloro combinado) y por ser acueductos más pequeños, menor cantidad de cloro residual. Con respecto a la formación de los subproductos, de acuerdo a la literatura, se pudo afirmar que la misma se ve favorecida con el aumento de la dosis de cloro (no necesariamente el cloro residual) y el aumento del tiempo de contacto agua-cloro, por cuanto el contenido de THMs a la salida de las plantas de tratamiento se incrementa posteriormente en muchos casos en la red, debido principalmente al mayor tiempo de contacto con la materia orgánica y con sustancias orgánicas de biofilmes en la red. De acuerdo a determinaciones anteriores en muestreos control de agua municipal el promedio de cloro residual de las plantas de tratamiento es de 1.1 mg/L y el de los sistemas de agua subterránea es de 0,6 mg/L

Optimización del protocolo de establecimiento de cultivos celulares de Plantago major (llantén) para la comprobación de la actividad cicatrizante de un producto farmacéutico y determinación efecto biológico contra la infección de H. pylori en modelos in vitro

Proyecto de Investigación (Código: 1510044) Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica. Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Extensión (VIE). Dirección de Proyectos. Escuela de Biología, 2019A especies del género Plantago entre ellas Plantago major, se le han atribuido propiedades medicinales debido a la diversidad de compuestos presentes en sus células. Está comprobado que metabolitos aislados o bien, extractos crudos de esta especie, pueden ayudar a la regeneración de heridas de piel, estimular la proliferación celular, disminuir la inflamación y que tienen actividad antibacterial. Por lo anterior, en el presente proyecto se buscó optimizar el establecimiento de cultivos celulares de llantén, para elaborar, analizar y comparar la capacidad regenerativa de diferentes extractos de esta planta en un modelo in vitro e in vivo. Para ello, se evaluaron ocho tratamientos para la inducción de la desdiferenciación celular a partir de hojas in vitro, y así comprobar el potencial de los cultivos celulares en procesos de cicatrización. El medio de cultivo seleccionado se denominó como M27.7 50S (Sales y vitaminas M&S 50%, 2,5 mg/l de TDZ, sacaros 3% m/v, pH 7). Se probaron diferentes concentraciones de diferentes muestras de extractos de P. major: plantas tomadas de campo, plantas cultivadas in vitro y además callo friable para evaluar cual era el efecto sobre la migración celular in vitro. Posteriormente, luego de seleccionar el tratamiento más eficiente in vitro, se elaboró una crema a base de esta planta para analizar el efecto durante las diferentes fases de regeneración en un modelo murino. En el caso de los resultados del modelo de regeneración in vivo parece ser que el extracto de llantén ejerce una acción antiinflamatoria lo que favorece el incremento en la tasa de regeneración. De esta manera se concluye que la especie P. major podría tener un efecto positivo en la fase aguda del proceso de regeneración tisular en piel

Evaluation of the normothermic ischemic liver injury: the role of main biliary duct occlusion and N-acetylcysteine

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) on the hepatic ischemia injury. METHODS: Thirty eight male EPM-1 Wistar rats were divided in four groups: G1 and G2 with ischemia time of 30 min.; groups 3 and 4 were submitted to 30 min of ischemia and bile duct was not clamped. Animals from groups 2 and 4 received NAC, 150mg.Kg-1 bw, by IV injection, 15 min. before procedure. Blood samples were collected before and after ischemia and liver function was evaluated by enzymatic measurement. Hepatic samples were processed to GSH/GSSG, light and electronic microscopy evaluation. Non-parametric tests were applied to the statistical analysis (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Enzymatic increase were higher when NAC was absent. There was no protection by NAC when bile duct was absent nor when bile duct was not clamped. Under light microscopy there was significant difference in the groups S/NAC X C/NAC, showing that group C/NAC maintained better parenchyma architecture during ischemia time, independent on bile duct clamp. Under electronic microscopy, the groups C/NAC and those without bile duct clamping showed preserved cellular arquitecture. NAC did not alter the relationship between reduced glutathione / oxidated gluthatione (GSH/GSSG). CONCLUSION: NAC is able to protect hepatic parenquime during normothermic ischemia and we purpose that such mechanism is related to a direct reaction of NAC with nitric oxide (NO).OBJETIVO: Estudar o efeito da N-acetilcisteína (NAC) na isquemia hepática. MÉTODO: Trinta e oito ratos machos EPM-1 Wistar foram distribuídos em quatro grupos. Nos Grupos 1 e 2 foi realizado 30 min de clampeamento do hilo hepático, e nos Grupos 3 e 4 os animais foram submetidos a 30 minutos de isquemia sem clampleamento do ducto biliar. Os animais dos Grupos 2 e 4 receberam 150mg.Kg-1 de NAC, endovenoso, 15 minutos antes do procedimento. Colheu-se sangue antes do procedimento e após o clampeamento do pedículo para a dosagem enzimática. Amostras de fígado foram coletadas para dosagem de glutationa, microscopia óptica e eletrônica. No estudo estatístico aplicaram-se testes não paramétricos, p < 0,05. RESULTADOS: O aumento das enzimas foi menor quando se administrou NAC, sendo semelhante na ausência do clampeamento da via biliar. À microscopia óptica houve diferença significante dos grupos S/NAC X C/NAC, mostrando que o grupo C/NAC manteve a arquitetura do parênquima durante a isquemia, independente do clampeamento do ducto biliar. Na microscopia eletrônica os grupos C/NAC e os sem clampeamento do ducto biliar apresentaram arquitetura celular preservada. A NAC não alterou a relação de glutationa reduzida/ glutationa oxidada (GSH/GSSG). CONCLUSÕES: A NAC é capaz de proteger o parênquima hepático durante a isquemia normotérmica e propõe-se que o mecanismo seja por reação direta da NAC com o óxido nítrico (NO).FURG Departamento de CirurgiaUNIFESP-EPM Departamento de CirurgiaUSP Departamento de Análises Clínicas e ToxicológicasUNIFESP-EPM Departamento de Medicina InternaUNIFESP-EPM Departamento de MorfologiaUNIFESP, EPM, Depto. de CirurgiaUNIFESP, EPM Depto. de Medicina InternaUNIFESP, EPM Depto. de MorfologiaSciEL

Predictive Power of the "Trigger Tool" for the detection of adverse events in general surgery: a multicenter observational validation study

Background In spite of the global implementation of standardized surgical safety checklists and evidence-based practices, general surgery remains associated with a high residual risk of preventable perioperative complications and adverse events. This study was designed to validate the hypothesis that a new “Trigger Tool” represents a sensitive predictor of adverse events in general surgery. Methods An observational multicenter validation study was performed among 31 hospitals in Spain. The previously described “Trigger Tool” based on 40 specific triggers was applied to validate the predictive power of predicting adverse events in the perioperative care of surgical patients. A prediction model was used by means of a binary logistic regression analysis. Results The prevalence of adverse events among a total of 1,132 surgical cases included in this study was 31.53%. The “Trigger Tool” had a sensitivity and specificity of 86.27% and 79.55% respectively for predicting these adverse events. A total of 12 selected triggers of overall 40 triggers were identified for optimizing the predictive power of the “Trigger Tool”. Conclusions The “Trigger Tool” has a high predictive capacity for predicting adverse events in surgical procedures. We recommend a revision of the original 40 triggers to 12 selected triggers to optimize the predictive power of this tool, which will have to be validated in future studies

CIBERER : Spanish national network for research on rare diseases: A highly productive collaborative initiative

Altres ajuts: Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII); Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación.CIBER (Center for Biomedical Network Research; Centro de Investigación Biomédica En Red) is a public national consortium created in 2006 under the umbrella of the Spanish National Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII). This innovative research structure comprises 11 different specific areas dedicated to the main public health priorities in the National Health System. CIBERER, the thematic area of CIBER focused on rare diseases (RDs) currently consists of 75 research groups belonging to universities, research centers, and hospitals of the entire country. CIBERER's mission is to be a center prioritizing and favoring collaboration and cooperation between biomedical and clinical research groups, with special emphasis on the aspects of genetic, molecular, biochemical, and cellular research of RDs. This research is the basis for providing new tools for the diagnosis and therapy of low-prevalence diseases, in line with the International Rare Diseases Research Consortium (IRDiRC) objectives, thus favoring translational research between the scientific environment of the laboratory and the clinical setting of health centers. In this article, we intend to review CIBERER's 15-year journey and summarize the main results obtained in terms of internationalization, scientific production, contributions toward the discovery of new therapies and novel genes associated to diseases, cooperation with patients' associations and many other topics related to RD research

Clonal chromosomal mosaicism and loss of chromosome Y in elderly men increase vulnerability for SARS-CoV-2

The pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19) had an estimated overall case fatality ratio of 1.38% (pre-vaccination), being 53% higher in males and increasing exponentially with age. Among 9578 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in the SCOURGE study, we found 133 cases (1.42%) with detectable clonal mosaicism for chromosome alterations (mCA) and 226 males (5.08%) with acquired loss of chromosome Y (LOY). Individuals with clonal mosaic events (mCA and/or LOY) showed a 54% increase in the risk of COVID-19 lethality. LOY is associated with transcriptomic biomarkers of immune dysfunction, pro-coagulation activity and cardiovascular risk. Interferon-induced genes involved in the initial immune response to SARS-CoV-2 are also down-regulated in LOY. Thus, mCA and LOY underlie at least part of the sex-biased severity and mortality of COVID-19 in aging patients. Given its potential therapeutic and prognostic relevance, evaluation of clonal mosaicism should be implemented as biomarker of COVID-19 severity in elderly people. Among 9578 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 in the SCOURGE study, individuals with clonal mosaic events (clonal mosaicism for chromosome alterations and/or loss of chromosome Y) showed an increased risk of COVID-19 lethality

Global age-sex-specific mortality, life expectancy, and population estimates in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1950–2021, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background: Estimates of demographic metrics are crucial to assess levels and trends of population health outcomes. The profound impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on populations worldwide has underscored the need for timely estimates to understand this unprecedented event within the context of long-term population health trends. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 provides new demographic estimates for 204 countries and territories and 811 additional subnational locations from 1950 to 2021, with a particular emphasis on changes in mortality and life expectancy that occurred during the 2020–21 COVID-19 pandemic period. Methods: 22 223 data sources from vital registration, sample registration, surveys, censuses, and other sources were used to estimate mortality, with a subset of these sources used exclusively to estimate excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026 data sources were used for population estimation. Additional sources were used to estimate migration; the effects of the HIV epidemic; and demographic discontinuities due to conflicts, famines, natural disasters, and pandemics, which are used as inputs for estimating mortality and population. Spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression (ST-GPR) was used to generate under-5 mortality rates, which synthesised 30 763 location-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 1365 surveys and censuses, and 80 other sources. ST-GPR was also used to estimate adult mortality (between ages 15 and 59 years) based on information from 31 642 location-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 355 surveys and censuses, and 24 other sources. Estimates of child and adult mortality rates were then used to generate life tables with a relational model life table system. For countries with large HIV epidemics, life tables were adjusted using independent estimates of HIV-specific mortality generated via an epidemiological analysis of HIV prevalence surveys, antenatal clinic serosurveillance, and other data sources. Excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021 was determined by subtracting observed all-cause mortality (adjusted for late registration and mortality anomalies) from the mortality expected in the absence of the pandemic. Expected mortality was calculated based on historical trends using an ensemble of models. In location-years where all-cause mortality data were unavailable, we estimated excess mortality rates using a regression model with covariates pertaining to the pandemic. Population size was computed using a Bayesian hierarchical cohort component model. Life expectancy was calculated using age-specific mortality rates and standard demographic methods. Uncertainty intervals (UIs) were calculated for every metric using the 25th and 975th ordered values from a 1000-draw posterior distribution. Findings: Global all-cause mortality followed two distinct patterns over the study period: age-standardised mortality rates declined between 1950 and 2019 (a 62·8% [95% UI 60·5–65·1] decline), and increased during the COVID-19 pandemic period (2020–21; 5·1% [0·9–9·6] increase). In contrast with the overall reverse in mortality trends during the pandemic period, child mortality continued to decline, with 4·66 million (3·98–5·50) global deaths in children younger than 5 years in 2021 compared with 5·21 million (4·50–6·01) in 2019. An estimated 131 million (126–137) people died globally from all causes in 2020 and 2021 combined, of which 15·9 million (14·7–17·2) were due to the COVID-19 pandemic (measured by excess mortality, which includes deaths directly due to SARS-CoV-2 infection and those indirectly due to other social, economic, or behavioural changes associated with the pandemic). Excess mortality rates exceeded 150 deaths per 100 000 population during at least one year of the pandemic in 80 countries and territories, whereas 20 nations had a negative excess mortality rate in 2020 or 2021, indicating that all-cause mortality in these countries was lower during the pandemic than expected based on historical trends. Between 1950 and 2021, global life expectancy at birth increased by 22·7 years (20·8–24·8), from 49·0 years (46·7–51·3) to 71·7 years (70·9–72·5). Global life expectancy at birth declined by 1·6 years (1·0–2·2) between 2019 and 2021, reversing historical trends. An increase in life expectancy was only observed in 32 (15·7%) of 204 countries and territories between 2019 and 2021. The global population reached 7·89 billion (7·67–8·13) people in 2021, by which time 56 of 204 countries and territories had peaked and subsequently populations have declined. The largest proportion of population growth between 2020 and 2021 was in sub-Saharan Africa (39·5% [28·4–52·7]) and south Asia (26·3% [9·0–44·7]). From 2000 to 2021, the ratio of the population aged 65 years and older to the population aged younger than 15 years increased in 188 (92·2%) of 204 nations. Interpretation: Global adult mortality rates markedly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021, reversing past decreasing trends, while child mortality rates continued to decline, albeit more slowly than in earlier years. Although COVID-19 had a substantial impact on many demographic indicators during the first 2 years of the pandemic, overall global health progress over the 72 years evaluated has been profound, with considerable improvements in mortality and life expectancy. Additionally, we observed a deceleration of global population growth since 2017, despite steady or increasing growth in lower-income countries, combined with a continued global shift of population age structures towards older ages. These demographic changes will likely present future challenges to health systems, economies, and societies. The comprehensive demographic estimates reported here will enable researchers, policy makers, health practitioners, and other key stakeholders to better understand and address the profound changes that have occurred in the global health landscape following the first 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic, and longer-term trends beyond the pandemic

Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

BACKGROUND Regular, detailed reporting on population health by underlying cause of death is fundamental for public health decision making. Cause-specific estimates of mortality and the subsequent effects on life expectancy worldwide are valuable metrics to gauge progress in reducing mortality rates. These estimates are particularly important following large-scale mortality spikes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. When systematically analysed, mortality rates and life expectancy allow comparisons of the consequences of causes of death globally and over time, providing a nuanced understanding of the effect of these causes on global populations. METHODS The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 cause-of-death analysis estimated mortality and years of life lost (YLLs) from 288 causes of death by age-sex-location-year in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations for each year from 1990 until 2021. The analysis used 56 604 data sources, including data from vital registration and verbal autopsy as well as surveys, censuses, surveillance systems, and cancer registries, among others. As with previous GBD rounds, cause-specific death rates for most causes were estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model-a modelling tool developed for GBD to assess the out-of-sample predictive validity of different statistical models and covariate permutations and combine those results to produce cause-specific mortality estimates-with alternative strategies adapted to model causes with insufficient data, substantial changes in reporting over the study period, or unusual epidemiology. YLLs were computed as the product of the number of deaths for each cause-age-sex-location-year and the standard life expectancy at each age. As part of the modelling process, uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated using the 2·5th and 97·5th percentiles from a 1000-draw distribution for each metric. We decomposed life expectancy by cause of death, location, and year to show cause-specific effects on life expectancy from 1990 to 2021. We also used the coefficient of variation and the fraction of population affected by 90% of deaths to highlight concentrations of mortality. Findings are reported in counts and age-standardised rates. Methodological improvements for cause-of-death estimates in GBD 2021 include the expansion of under-5-years age group to include four new age groups, enhanced methods to account for stochastic variation of sparse data, and the inclusion of COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality-which includes excess mortality associated with the pandemic, excluding COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, and pertussis. For this analysis, 199 new country-years of vital registration cause-of-death data, 5 country-years of surveillance data, 21 country-years of verbal autopsy data, and 94 country-years of other data types were added to those used in previous GBD rounds. FINDINGS The leading causes of age-standardised deaths globally were the same in 2019 as they were in 1990; in descending order, these were, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lower respiratory infections. In 2021, however, COVID-19 replaced stroke as the second-leading age-standardised cause of death, with 94·0 deaths (95% UI 89·2-100·0) per 100 000 population. The COVID-19 pandemic shifted the rankings of the leading five causes, lowering stroke to the third-leading and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to the fourth-leading position. In 2021, the highest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 occurred in sub-Saharan Africa (271·0 deaths [250·1-290·7] per 100 000 population) and Latin America and the Caribbean (195·4 deaths [182·1-211·4] per 100 000 population). The lowest age-standardised death rates from COVID-19 were in the high-income super-region (48·1 deaths [47·4-48·8] per 100 000 population) and southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania (23·2 deaths [16·3-37·2] per 100 000 population). Globally, life expectancy steadily improved between 1990 and 2019 for 18 of the 22 investigated causes. Decomposition of global and regional life expectancy showed the positive effect that reductions in deaths from enteric infections, lower respiratory infections, stroke, and neonatal deaths, among others have contributed to improved survival over the study period. However, a net reduction of 1·6 years occurred in global life expectancy between 2019 and 2021, primarily due to increased death rates from COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality. Life expectancy was highly variable between super-regions over the study period, with southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania gaining 8·3 years (6·7-9·9) overall, while having the smallest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 (0·4 years). The largest reduction in life expectancy due to COVID-19 occurred in Latin America and the Caribbean (3·6 years). Additionally, 53 of the 288 causes of death were highly concentrated in locations with less than 50% of the global population as of 2021, and these causes of death became progressively more concentrated since 1990, when only 44 causes showed this pattern. The concentration phenomenon is discussed heuristically with respect to enteric and lower respiratory infections, malaria, HIV/AIDS, neonatal disorders, tuberculosis, and measles. INTERPRETATION Long-standing gains in life expectancy and reductions in many of the leading causes of death have been disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, the adverse effects of which were spread unevenly among populations. Despite the pandemic, there has been continued progress in combatting several notable causes of death, leading to improved global life expectancy over the study period. Each of the seven GBD super-regions showed an overall improvement from 1990 and 2021, obscuring the negative effect in the years of the pandemic. Additionally, our findings regarding regional variation in causes of death driving increases in life expectancy hold clear policy utility. Analyses of shifting mortality trends reveal that several causes, once widespread globally, are now increasingly concentrated geographically. These changes in mortality concentration, alongside further investigation of changing risks, interventions, and relevant policy, present an important opportunity to deepen our understanding of mortality-reduction strategies. Examining patterns in mortality concentration might reveal areas where successful public health interventions have been implemented. Translating these successes to locations where certain causes of death remain entrenched can inform policies that work to improve life expectancy for people everywhere. FUNDING Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Reducing the environmental impact of surgery on a global scale: systematic review and co-prioritization with healthcare workers in 132 countries

Abstract Background Healthcare cannot achieve net-zero carbon without addressing operating theatres. The aim of this study was to prioritize feasible interventions to reduce the environmental impact of operating theatres. Methods This study adopted a four-phase Delphi consensus co-prioritization methodology. In phase 1, a systematic review of published interventions and global consultation of perioperative healthcare professionals were used to longlist interventions. In phase 2, iterative thematic analysis consolidated comparable interventions into a shortlist. In phase 3, the shortlist was co-prioritized based on patient and clinician views on acceptability, feasibility, and safety. In phase 4, ranked lists of interventions were presented by their relevance to high-income countries and low–middle-income countries. Results In phase 1, 43 interventions were identified, which had low uptake in practice according to 3042 professionals globally. In phase 2, a shortlist of 15 intervention domains was generated. In phase 3, interventions were deemed acceptable for more than 90 per cent of patients except for reducing general anaesthesia (84 per cent) and re-sterilization of ‘single-use’ consumables (86 per cent). In phase 4, the top three shortlisted interventions for high-income countries were: introducing recycling; reducing use of anaesthetic gases; and appropriate clinical waste processing. In phase 4, the top three shortlisted interventions for low–middle-income countries were: introducing reusable surgical devices; reducing use of consumables; and reducing the use of general anaesthesia. Conclusion This is a step toward environmentally sustainable operating environments with actionable interventions applicable to both high– and low–middle–income countries

Estudio de casos Aislamiento de bacterias del hierro y azufre como productoras de biodeterioro o corrosión anaeróbica en tuberías y daño a otros materiales

Los procesos de biodeterioro son reconocidos actualmente como una de las mayores causas de deterioro en superficies de diversos materiales, queafectan a una gran cantidad y diversos tipos de industrias. Una superficie metálica en contacto con agua o tierra experimenta una serie de cambios biológicos e inorgánicos que constituyen el fouling. La posterior secuencia de cambios biológicos es debido a la adherencia irreversible de diferentes tipos de microorganismos sobre el metal a través del material polimérico extracelular, constituyendo ello, el biofouling. La biocorrosión y el biofouling de las superficies se deben a procesos biológicos y electroquímicos que ocurren mediante la participación de microorganismos adheridos a las superficies a través de biofilmes. Estas películas biológicas modifican las condiciones de la interfase metal/solución, formando una barrera al contacto entre el metal o material y el medio circundante, se considera que la corrosión microbiológica transcurre entonces sobre una superficie modificada con características fisicoquímicas y biológicas muy particulares y condicionadas, donde no se puede interpretar con los mismos parámetros de un proceso de corrosión inorgánica