Universities should lead on the plant-based dietary transition

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Variabilité du comportement de recherche alimentaire d’un oiseau marin tropical : le fou à pieds rouges (Sula sula)

Seabird foraging behaviour varies through time according to factors that may be related to life cycle stage and/or habitat. However, no study has previously investigated variation in these different factors and how they impact foraging behaviour in a single species simultaneously. The aim of this thesis was to distinguish the fixed part of foraging behaviour from its different degrees of plasticity in a pantropical seabird, the Red-footed booby (Sula sula). Adults and juveniles from different colonies were equipped with GPS tags to track their foraging trips according to several intrinsic (age and breeding stage) and extrinsic factors (physical forcing, primary productivity and competition for resources). Adult foraging behaviour varied significantly within the same colony according to breeding stage. Tracks were shorter during brooding, which is known to be a particularly energy-constraining time period, and longer during incubation and fledging. Multi-year monitoring at one of the colonies revealed flexibility in behaviour under adverse environmental conditions. Longer tracks were observed during breeding seasons with decreased productivity and eddy activity. High plasticity in foraging behaviour according to habitat was observed across the range of the species. The length and range of adult trips varied considerably among colonies, ranging from strictly diurnal to longer trips that included several nights spent at sea. Red-footed boobies did not appear to target particularly productive areas, and intra- and interspecific competition seemed to explain partly the differences observed between colonies. On the other hand, all the individuals showed similar trip structuring and increased searching effort by adopting area-restricted search (ARS) behaviours. The behaviour of juveniles, still fed by their parents after fledging during a long transition period, was described for the first time. Over time, juveniles increased trip ranges, which were considerably lower than that of adults. Associations at sea with other juveniles were frequently identified. This long learning period seems to be an adaptation allowing the gradual acquisition of the skills necessary for the search and capture of prey. While the behavioural plasticity of individuals tends to cushion the effects of unfavourable conditions at the population scale, this flexibility is still limited. In the current context of global change, assessment of behavioural plasticity is necessary in order to better predict the consequences of these changes on populations.Le comportement de recherche alimentaire varie tout au long de la vie des oiseaux marins selon divers facteurs qui peuvent être liés au cycle de vie ou à l’habitat. Cependant, aucune étude n’avait auparavant abordé ces différents facteurs de variation chez une seule et même espèce. L’objectif de cette thèse était de distinguer la part fixe du comportement de recherche alimentaire de ses différents degrés de plasticité chez un oiseau marin pantropical, le fou à pieds rouges (Sula sula). Pour cela, des adultes et des juvéniles issus de différentes colonies ont été équipés de balises GPS afin d’étudier leurs trajets selon différents facteurs de variation intrinsèques (âge et stade de reproduction) et extrinsèques (forçages physiques, productivité primaire, compétition pour la ressource). Le comportement de recherche alimentaire des adultes variait de façon importante au sein d’une même colonie selon le stade de reproduction. Les trajets étaient plus courts pendant l'élevage du poussin, connu pour être particulièrement contraignant d’un point de vue énergétique, et plus longs pendant l’incubation et la période post-envol. Le suivi pluriannuel d’une des colonies a pu mettre en évidence la flexibilité du comportement lors de conditions environnementales défavorables. Des trajets plus longs étaient observés lors de la saison de reproduction qui présentait une diminution de la productivité et de l’activité tourbillonnaire locale. Une importante plasticité du comportement en fonction de l’habitat a pu être mise en évidence à l’échelle de l’aire de répartition de l’espèce. La durée et le rayon de prospection des trajets des adultes variaient considérablement selon les colonies, allant de trajets strictement diurnes à des trajets beaucoup plus longs qui incluaient plusieurs nuits passées en mer. Les fous à pieds rouges ne semblaient pas cibler des zones particulièrement productives et la compétition intra- et interspécifique semblait expliquer en partie les différences observées entre les colonies. En revanche, tous les trajets possédaient généralement une structure similaire et augmentaient leur effort de recherche alimentaire en adoptant un comportement de recherche en zone restreinte (ARS). Le comportement des juvéniles, encore nourris par leurs parents après leur envol pendant une longue période de transition, a pu être décrit pour la première fois. Avec le temps, les juvéniles augmentaient le rayon de prospection de leurs trajets, qui restait considérablement inférieur à celui des adultes. Des associations en mer avec d’autres juvéniles étaient fréquemment identifiées. Cette longue période d’apprentissage semble permettre l’acquisition progressive de compétences complexes nécessaires à la recherche et à la capture de leurs proies. Si la plasticité comportementale des individus tend généralement à amortir les effets des conditions défavorables sur l'état de santé moyen d’une population, cette flexibilité est tout de même limitée. Dans le contexte actuel de changement global, l’évaluation de la plasticité comportementale s’avère alors nécessaire afin de mieux prévoir les conséquences de ces changements sur les populations

Variability in foraging behaviour of a tropical seabird : the red-footed booby (Sula sula)

Le comportement de recherche alimentaire varie tout au long de la vie des oiseaux marins selon divers facteurs qui peuvent être liés au cycle de vie ou à l’habitat. Cependant, aucune étude n’avait auparavant abordé ces différents facteurs de variation chez une seule et même espèce. L’objectif de cette thèse était de distinguer la part fixe du comportement de recherche alimentaire de ses différents degrés de plasticité chez un oiseau marin pantropical, le fou à pieds rouges (Sula sula). Pour cela, des adultes et des juvéniles issus de différentes colonies ont été équipés de balises GPS afin d’étudier leurs trajets selon différents facteurs de variation intrinsèques (âge et stade de reproduction) et extrinsèques (forçages physiques, productivité primaire, compétition pour la ressource). Le comportement de recherche alimentaire des adultes variait de façon importante au sein d’une même colonie selon le stade de reproduction. Les trajets étaient plus courts pendant l'élevage du poussin, connu pour être particulièrement contraignant d’un point de vue énergétique, et plus longs pendant l’incubation et la période post-envol. Le suivi pluriannuel d’une des colonies a pu mettre en évidence la flexibilité du comportement lors de conditions environnementales défavorables. Des trajets plus longs étaient observés lors de la saison de reproduction qui présentait une diminution de la productivité et de l’activité tourbillonnaire locale. Une importante plasticité du comportement en fonction de l’habitat a pu être mise en évidence à l’échelle de l’aire de répartition de l’espèce. La durée et le rayon de prospection des trajets des adultes variaient considérablement selon les colonies, allant de trajets strictement diurnes à des trajets beaucoup plus longs qui incluaient plusieurs nuits passées en mer. Les fous à pieds rouges ne semblaient pas cibler des zones particulièrement productives et la compétition intra- et interspécifique semblait expliquer en partie les différences observées entre les colonies. En revanche, tous les trajets possédaient généralement une structure similaire et augmentaient leur effort de recherche alimentaire en adoptant un comportement de recherche en zone restreinte (ARS). Le comportement des juvéniles, encore nourris par leurs parents après leur envol pendant une longue période de transition, a pu être décrit pour la première fois. Avec le temps, les juvéniles augmentaient le rayon de prospection de leurs trajets, qui restait considérablement inférieur à celui des adultes. Des associations en mer avec d’autres juvéniles étaient fréquemment identifiées. Cette longue période d’apprentissage semble permettre l’acquisition progressive de compétences complexes nécessaires à la recherche et à la capture de leurs proies. Si la plasticité comportementale des individus tend généralement à amortir les effets des conditions défavorables sur l'état de santé moyen d’une population, cette flexibilité est tout de même limitée. Dans le contexte actuel de changement global, l’évaluation de la plasticité comportementale s’avère alors nécessaire afin de mieux prévoir les conséquences de ces changements sur les populations.Seabird foraging behaviour varies through time according to factors that may be related to life cycle stage and/or habitat. However, no study has previously investigated variation in these different factors and how they impact foraging behaviour in a single species simultaneously. The aim of this thesis was to distinguish the fixed part of foraging behaviour from its different degrees of plasticity in a pantropical seabird, the Red-footed booby (Sula sula). Adults and juveniles from different colonies were equipped with GPS tags to track their foraging trips according to several intrinsic (age and breeding stage) and extrinsic factors (physical forcing, primary productivity and competition for resources). Adult foraging behaviour varied significantly within the same colony according to breeding stage. Tracks were shorter during brooding, which is known to be a particularly energy-constraining time period, and longer during incubation and fledging. Multi-year monitoring at one of the colonies revealed flexibility in behaviour under adverse environmental conditions. Longer tracks were observed during breeding seasons with decreased productivity and eddy activity. High plasticity in foraging behaviour according to habitat was observed across the range of the species. The length and range of adult trips varied considerably among colonies, ranging from strictly diurnal to longer trips that included several nights spent at sea. Red-footed boobies did not appear to target particularly productive areas, and intra- and interspecific competition seemed to explain partly the differences observed between colonies. On the other hand, all the individuals showed similar trip structuring and increased searching effort by adopting area-restricted search (ARS) behaviours. The behaviour of juveniles, still fed by their parents after fledging during a long transition period, was described for the first time. Over time, juveniles increased trip ranges, which were considerably lower than that of adults. Associations at sea with other juveniles were frequently identified. This long learning period seems to be an adaptation allowing the gradual acquisition of the skills necessary for the search and capture of prey. While the behavioural plasticity of individuals tends to cushion the effects of unfavourable conditions at the population scale, this flexibility is still limited. In the current context of global change, assessment of behavioural plasticity is necessary in order to better predict the consequences of these changes on populations

Ontogeny of foraging behaviour in juvenile red-footed boobies (Sula sula)

International audienceThe early life stages represent a crucial period that can strongly influence population dynamics. We studied the development of foraging behaviour in the red-footed booby, a tropical seabird with an extensive post-fledging care period (3 to 6 months). Adults and juveniles were observed from shore and tracked at sea using GPS loggers over 3 consecutive 12-day periods. Juveniles initially made a majority of flights inland, likely to practice flying, and formed groups of up to 10 juveniles before making short trips at sea. They left the island later and returned earlier than the adults, allowing them to be fed on the nest. Over time, juveniles left the colony alone more frequently and increased the range of their trips while remaining significantly closer to the colony than the adults. They spent more time intensively foraging (slow and sinuous trajectory) than adults, which could reflect attempts to capture prey. Juveniles foraged independently of their parents but associated frequently with congeners, particularly during area-restricted search (ARS) behaviour. The extensive post-fledging care period observed may be explained by the need to develop proper foraging skills adapted to tropical waters, where resources are particularly scarce and unpredictable

Inter‐population variation in the behaviour of adult and juvenile Red‐footed Boobies Sula sula

International audienceEarly life is a critical phase of the life cycle of animals and is attracting increased attention because little information is available on the behaviour of young individuals during this period. Behaviour during early life is probably influenced by the environmental conditions encountered by young animals, but data on intraspecific variation between breeding sites during this crucial period of life are limited. Here we study variability in the foraging behaviour of juveniles and adults in three colonies of a pantropical seabird, the Red‐footed Booby Sula sula. Both adults and juveniles were measured and fitted with GPS loggers in three remote islands: Genovesa (Galapagos, Eastern Pacific Ocean), Europa (Western Indian Ocean) and Surprise (New Caledonia, Western Pacific Ocean). Foraging behaviour was compared between age classes, sex and colonies by examining trip characteristics, different behaviours at sea, potential associations between individuals, as well as morphological characteristics. Compared to adults, juveniles conducted shorter trips that were restricted around the colony, especially on Genovesa (max range: 203.4 ± 125.1 km and 3.6 ± 3.1 km, respectively). Juveniles appeared more constrained by poor flight skills and experience rather than by their morphology. Adults travelled 45% of the time during at‐sea trips, while juveniles travelled a lower proportion of time but foraged more often using an ‘area‐restricted search’ behaviour, potentially training to catch prey. Associations between juveniles were commonly detected in the three colonies and occurred mostly during foraging, suggesting that social learning is an important strategy. Variability of morphometric measurements in both adults and juveniles was high between sites, with larger birds found on Genovesa. These results suggest that adaptations to local environmental conditions are already visible in their early life. Future studies should continue to investigate the behavioural flexibility of juvenile birds to better understand the effect of local environmental conditions during this critical stage of life

Variability in foraging behaviour of red-footed boobies nesting on Europa Island

International audienceSeabirds are considered to be good indicators of the marine environment. However, little is known about the effects of environmental variability on the foraging behaviour of tropical seabirds. Red-footed boobies (RFB) nesting on Europa Island (Mozambique Channel) were fitted with GPS devices over four years and different breeding stages. We first show that the durations of foraging trips vary extensively according to the stage of the breeding, being short during brooding, intermediate during incubation and long during fledging. This result highlights the importance of considering breeding stage when conducting comparisons of foraging between sites or years. In addition, we show that RFB adjusted their foraging behaviour between years (2003, 2011, 2012 and 2013) according to the prevailing environmental conditions. During 2011, RFB made longer foraging trips with larger area-restricted search (ARS) zones over a larger total surface area, suggesting that the foraging conditions were probably poor. This year was characterized by a decrease of the major environmental drivers of the Mozambique Channel system, i.e. particularly low chlorophyll concentrations in the northern part of the Mozambique Channel, as well as a weak eddy activity. This observation suggests that environmental conditions may have altered thesouthward transport and concentration processes structuring the trophic chain, leading to adverse conditions for a central-place forager like the RFB. Our results emphasize that environmental and breeding stage variation should be taken into account to better understand the distribution of thesepredators in marine tropical ecosystems

Geographical variation in the foraging behaviour of the pantropical red-footed booby

International audienceWhile interspecific differences in foraging behaviour have attracted much attention,less is known about how foraging behaviour differs between populations of the same species.Here we compared the foraging strategy of a pantropical seabird, the red-footed booby Sula sula,in 5 populations breeding in contrasted environmental conditions. The foraging strategy stronglydiffered between sites, from strictly diurnal short trips in Europa Island (Mozambique channel) tolong trips including up to 5 nights at sea in Genovesa Island (Galapagos archipelago). The ExpectationMaximisation binary Clustering (EMbC) algorithm was used to determine the differentbehaviours of individuals during their foraging trips (travelling, intensive foraging, resting andrelocating). During the day, the activity budget was similar for all the breeding colonies. Duringthe night, birds were primarily on the water, drifting with currents. At all sites, birds similarly performedintensive foraging in zones of area-restricted search (ARS), although the size and durationof ARS zones differed markedly. Red-footed boobies foraged over deep oceanic waters, withchlorophyll a concentrations varying between sites. Birds did not appear to target areas withhigher productivity. We suggest that range differences between populations may be linked toother factors such as intra- and interspecific competition

Refining seabird marine protected areas by predicting habitat inside foraging range - a case study from the global tropics

Conservation of breeding seabirds typically requires detailed data on where they feed at sea. Ecological niche models (ENMs) can fill data gaps, but rarely perform well when transferred to new regions. Alternatively, the foraging radius approach simply encircles the sea surrounding a breeding seabird colony (a foraging circle), but overestimates foraging habitat. Here, we investigate whether ENMs can transfer (predict) foraging niches of breeding tropical seabirds between global colonies, and whether ENMs can refine foraging circles. We collate a large global dataset of tropical seabird tracks (12000 trips, 16 species, 60 colonies) to build a comprehensive summary of tropical seabird foraging ranges and to train ENMs. We interrogate ENM transferability and assess the confidence with which unsuitable habitat predicted by ENMs can be excluded from within foraging circles. We apply this refinement framework to the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia to identify a network of candidate marine protected areas (MPAs) for seabirds. We found little ability to generalise and transfer breeding tropical seabird foraging niches across all colonies for any species (mean AUC: 0.56, range 0.4-0.82). Low global transferability was partially explained by colony clusters that predicted well internally but other colony clusters poorly. After refinement with ENMs, foraging circles still contained 89% of known foraging areas from tracking data, providing confidence that important foraging habitat was not erroneously excluded by greater refinement from high transferability ENMs nor minor refinement from low transferability ENMs. Foraging radii estimated the total foraging area of the GBR breeding seabird community as 2,941,000 km2, which was refined by excluding between 197,000 km2 and 1,826,000 km2 of unsuitable foraging habitat. ENMs trained on local GBR tracking achieved superior refinement over globally trained models, demonstrating the value of local tracking. Our framework demonstrates an effective method to delineate candidate MPAs for breeding seabirds in data-poor regions