Fundamental and applied research in ABA signaling: Regulation by ABA of the chromatin remodeling ATPase BRAHMA and biotechnological use of the PP2CA promoter

Optimal response to drought is critical for plant survival and will affect biodiversity and crop performance during climate change. Mitotically heritable epigenetic and dynamic chromatin state changes have been implicated in the plant response to the drought stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA). The Arabidopsis SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling ATPase BRAHMA (BRM) modulates response to ABA by preventing premature activation of stress response pathways during germination. Here, we show that the core ABA signalosome formed by ABA receptors, PP2Cs and SnRK2s physically interact with BRM to regulate BRM activity and post-translationally modify BRM by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation. Genetic evidence suggests that BRM acts downstream of SnRK2.2/2.3 kinases and biochemical studies identified evolutionary conserved SnRK2 phosphorylation sites in the C-terminal region of BRM. Our data suggest that SnRK2-dependent phosphorylation of BRM leads to its inhibition, and PP2CA-mediated dephosphorylation of BRM restores the ability of BRM to repress ABA response. ABA plays a key role to regulate germination and post-germination growth and the AP2-type ABI4 and bZIP-type ABI5 transcription factors (TFs) are required for ABA-mediated inhibition of post-germination growth when the embryo encounters water stress. The growth arrest induced by ABI4 and ABI5 involves ABA signaling and in the case of ABI5, it has been demonstrated that ABA inhibits the activity of BRM to induce ABI5 transcription. Loss of BRM activity leads to destabilization of a nucleosome involved in repression of ABI5 transcription. Therefore reduction of BRM activity in the brm-3 allele leads to enhanced expression of ABI5 in 2-d-old seedlings and enhanced sensitivity to ABA. Novel genetic evidence obtained in this work indicates that ABI4 is one of the redundant TFs regulated by BRM that mediate ABA response during germination and early seedling growth. Thus, the association of BRM with the ABI4 locus together with the observed derepression of ABI4 expression in brm-3 suggests that BRM directly regulates ABI4 expression. Finally, this work provides a direct link between the ABA signalosome and the chromatin-remodeling ATPase BRM, which enables ABA-dependent modulation of BRM activity as a possible mechanism to enhance plant drought tolerance. Additionally, we identified and characterized the promoter of PP2CA as a stress-inducible promoter and we have used it to drive the expression of ABA receptors from Arabidopsis and Solanum lycopersicum. This technology appears to be promising for the expression of ABA receptors in an inducible manner and to generate drought tolerant plants.La respuesta óptima a la sequía es crítica para la supervivencia de las plantas y afectará a la biodiversidad y al rendimiento de los cultivos durante el cambio climático. Las modificaciones epigenéticas y los cambios dinámicos del estado de la cromatina han sido implicados en la respuesta de la planta al ácido abscísico (ABA), la conocida como la hormona del estrés hídrico. La ATPasa remodeladora de cromatina de tipo SWI/SNF de Arabidopsis, BRAHMA (BRM), modula la respuesta al ABA mediante la prevención de la activación prematura de las vías de respuesta al estrés durante la germinación. Aquí, mostramos que el núcleo del señalosoma de ABA formado por los receptores de ABA, las PP2Cs y las SnRK2s interaccionan físicamente con BRM para regular su actividad y modificarla post-traduccionalmente por mecanismos de fosforilación/desfosforilación. La evidencia genética sugiere que BRM actúa aguas abajo de las quinasas SnRK2.2/2.3 y los estudios bioquímicos identificaron la presencia en la región C-terminal de BRM de sitios de fosforilación de las SnRK2 que estaban conservados evolutivamente. Nuestros datos sugieren que la fosforilación de BRM que depende de las SnRK2 conduce a su inhibición, y que la desfosforilación de BRM mediada por PP2CA restaura la capacidad de BRM para reprimir la respuesta a ABA. El ABA juega un papel clave en la regulación de la germinación y el crecimiento post germinativo y los factores de transcripción de tipo AP2 como ABI4 y de tipo bZIP como ABI5, son necesarios para la inhibición del crecimiento post germinativo mediado por ABA cuando los embriones encuentran estrés hídrico. La detención del crecimiento inducida por ABI4 y ABI5 implica la señalización de ABA y en el caso de ABI5, se ha demostrado que el ABA inhibe la actividad de BRM para inducir la transcripción de ABI5. La pérdida de actividad de BRM conduce a la desestabilización de un nucleosoma implicado en la represión de la transcripción de ABI5. Por lo tanto, la reducción de la actividad de BRM en el alelo brm-3 conduce a una mayor expresión de ABI5 en plántulas de 2 días y una mayor sensibilidad a ABA. La nueva evidencia genética obtenida en este trabajo indica que ABI4 es uno de los factores de transcripción redundantes regulados por BRM que median la respuesta a ABA durante los estadios de germinación y crecimiento temprano de las plántulas. La asociación de BRM con el locus ABI4, junto con la desrepresión de la expresión de ABI4 observada en el mutante brm-3 sugiere que BRM regula directamente la expresión de ABI4. Por último, este trabajo proporciona una relación directa entre el señalosoma de ABA y la ATPasa remodeladora de cromatina BRM, que permite la modulación de la actividad de BRM de modo dependiente de ABA como un posible mecanismo para mejorar la tolerancia a sequía de las plantas. Además, hemos identificado y caracterizado el promotor de PP2CA como un promotor inducible por estrés y lo hemos utilizado para dirigir la expresión de los receptores de ABA de Arabidopsis y Solanum lycopersicum. Esta tecnología parece ser prometedora para la expresión de receptores de ABA de modo inducible y para generar plantas tolerantes a la sequía.La resposta òptima a la sequera és crítica per a la supervivència de les plantes i afectarà la biodiversitat i al rendiment dels cultius durant el canvi climàtic. Les modificacions epigenètiques i els canvis dinàmics de l'estat de la cromatina han estat implicats en la resposta de la planta a l'àcid abscísic (ABA), la coneguda com hormona de l'estrès hídric. La ATPasa remodeladora de cromatina de tipus SWI/SNF d'Arabidopsis, BRAHMA (BRM), modula la resposta al ABA mitjançant la prevenció de l'activació prematura de les vies de resposta a l'estrès durant la germinació. Ací, mostrem que el nucli del senyalosoma d'ABA format pels receptors d'ABA, les PP2Cs i les SnRK2s interaccionen físicament amb BRM per regular la seva activitat i modificar-la post-traduccionalment per mecanismes de fosforilació/desfosforilació. L'evidència genètica suggereix que BRM actua aigües avall de les quinases SnRK2.2/2.3 i els estudis bioquímics van identificar la presència, a la regió C-terminal de BRM, de llocs de fosforilació de les SnRK2 que estaven conservats evolutivament. Les nostres dades suggereixen que la fosforilació de BRM que depèn de les SnRK2, condueix a la inhibició de BRM, i que la defosforilació de BRM mediada per PP2CA restaura la capacitat de BRM per reprimir la resposta a ABA. El ABA juga un paper clau en la regulació de la germinació i el creixement post-germinació i els factors de transcripció de tipus AP2 com ABI4 i de tipus bZIP com ABI5, són necessaris per a la inhibició del creixement post-germinació mediat per ABA quan els embrions pateixen estrès hídric. La detenció del creixement induïda per ABI4 i ABI5 implica la senyalització d'ABA i en el cas d'ABI5, s'ha demostrat que l'ABA inhibeix l'activitat de BRM per induir la transcripció d'ABI5. La pèrdua d'activitat de BRM condueix a la desestabilització d'un nucleosoma implicat en la repressió de la transcripció d'ABI5. Per tant, la reducció de l'activitat de BRM a l'al·lel brm-3 condueix a una major expressió d'ABI5 en plàntules de 2 dies i una major sensibilitat a l'ABA. La nova evidència genètica obtinguda en aquest treball indica que ABI4 és un dels factors de transcripció redundants que són regulats per BRM que medien la resposta a l'ABA durant els estadis de germinació i creixement primerenc de les plàntules. Per tant, l'associació de BRM amb el locus ABI4, juntament amb la desrepressió de l'expressió de ABI4 observada al mutant brm-3 suggereix que BRM regula directament l'expressió d'ABI4. Finalment, aquest treball proporciona una relació directa entre el senyalosoma d'ABA i l'ATPasa remodeladora de cromatina BRM, que permet la modulació de l'activitat de BRM de manera dependent d'ABA com un possible mecanisme per millorar la tolerància a sequera de les plantes. A més, hem identificat i caracteritzat el promotor de PP2CA com un promotor induïble per estrès i l'hem utilitzat per dirigir l'expressió dels receptors d'ABA d'Arabidopsis i Solanum lycopersicum. Aquesta tecnologia sembla ser prometedora per a l'expressió de receptors d'ABA de manera induïble i per generar plantes tolerants a la sequera.Peirats Llobet, M. (2017). Fundamental and applied research in ABA signaling: Regulation by ABA of the chromatin remodeling ATPase BRAHMA and biotechnological use of the PP2CA promoter [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/82694TESISPremios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorale

Ubiquitin Ligases RGLG1 and RGLG5 Regulate Abscisic Acid Signaling by Controlling the Turnover of Phosphatase PP2CA

[EN] Abscisic acid (ABA) is an essential hormone for plant development and stress responses. ABA signaling is suppressed by clade A PP2C phosphatases, which function as key repressors of this pathway through inhibiting ABA-activated SnRK2s (SNF1-related protein kinases). Upon ABA perception, the PYR/PYL/RCAR ABA receptors bind to PP2Cs with high affinity and biochemically inhibit their activity. While thismechanismhas been extensively studied, how PP2Cs are regulated at the protein level is only starting to be explored. Arabidopsis thaliana RING DOMAIN LIGASE5 (RGLG5) belongs to a five-member E3 ubiquitin ligase family whose target proteins remain unknown. We report that RGLG5, together with RGLG1, releases the PP2C blockade of ABA signaling by mediating PP2CA protein degradation. ABA promotes the interaction of PP2CA with both E3 ligases, which mediate ubiquitination of PP2CA and are required for ABA-dependent PP2CA turnover. Downregulation of RGLG1 and RGLG5 stabilizes endogenous PP2CA and diminishes ABA-mediated responses. Moreover, the reduced response to ABA in germination assays is suppressed in the rglg1 amiR (artificial microRNA)-rglg5 pp2ca-1 triple mutant, supporting a functional link among these loci. Overall, our data indicate that RGLG1 and RGLG5 are important modulators of ABA signaling, and they unveil amechanismfor activation of the ABA pathway by controlling PP2C half-life.We thank Andreas Bachmair for the rglg1 mutant, Sean R. Cutler for the pyr1 pyl1 pyl2 pyl4 seeds, Dapeng Zhang for the transgenic material harboring ABI2, Hongwei Guo and Jianmin Zhou for the pCAMBIA1300-Nluc and pCAMBIA1300-Cluc vectors, and John Olson for assistance in English editing. Work in C.A.'s laboratory was supported by grants from the National Key Basic Science "973" Program (Grant 2012CB114006), the National Natural Science Foundation (Grants 31272023, 31170231, and 90817001) of the Chinese government, and by the State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Peking University. Work in P.L.R.'s laboratory was supported by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion, Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, and Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (Grant BIO2014-52537-R).Wu, Q.; Zhang, X.; Peirats-Llobet, M.; Belda Palazón, B.; Wang, X.; Cui, S.; Yu, X.... (2016). Ubiquitin Ligases RGLG1 and RGLG5 Regulate Abscisic Acid Signaling by Controlling the Turnover of Phosphatase PP2CA. Plant Cell. 28(9):2178-2196. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.16.003642178219628

PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE1-LIKE8 plays an important role for the regulation of abscisic acid signaling in root

[EN] Abscisic acid (ABA) signaling plays a critical role in regulating root growth and root system architecture. ABA-mediated growth promotion and root tropic response under water stress are key responses for plant survival under limiting water conditions. In this work, we have explored the role of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE1 (PYR1)/PYR1-LIKE (PYL)/REGULATORY COMPONENTS OF ABA RECEPTORS for root ABA signaling. As a result, we discovered that PYL8 plays a nonredundant role for the regulation of root ABA sensitivity. Unexpectedly, given the multigenic nature and partial functional redundancy observed in the PYR/PYL family, the single pyl8 mutant showed reduced sensitivity to ABA-mediated root growth inhibition. This effect was due to the lack of PYL8-mediated inhibition of several clade A phosphatases type 2C (PP2Cs), since PYL8 interacted in vivo with at least five PP2Cs, namely HYPERSENSITIVE TO ABA1 (HAB1), HAB2, ABA-INSENSITIVE1 (ABI1), ABI2, and PP2CA/ABA-HYPERSENSITIVE GERMINATION3 as revealed by tandem affinity purification and mass spectrometry proteomic approaches. We also discovered that PYR/PYL receptors and clade A PP2Cs are crucial for the hydrotropic response that takes place to guide root growth far from regions with low water potential. Thus, an ABA-hypersensitive pp2c quadruple mutant showed enhanced hydrotropism, whereas an ABA-insensitive sextuple pyr/pyl mutant showed reduced hydrotropic response, indicating that ABA-dependent inhibition of PP2Cs by PYR/PYLs is required for the proper perception of a moisture gradient.This work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion, Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, and Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (grant no. BIO2011-23446 to P. L. R.; fellowships to R. A., L. R., and M. P.-L.; Juan de la Cierva contract to M.G.-G.).Antoni-Alandes, R.; Gonzalez Guzman, M.; Rodriguez, L.; Peirats-Llobet, M.; Pizzio Bianchi, GA.; Fernández, MA.; De Winne, N.... (2013). PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE1-LIKE8 plays an important role for the regulation of abscisic acid signaling in root. Plant Physiology. 161(2):931-941. doi:10.1104/pp.112.208678S931941161

C2-Domain Abscisic Acid-Related Proteins Mediate the Interaction of PYR/PYL/RCAR Abscisic Acid Receptors with the Plasma Membrane and Regulate Abscisic Acid Sensitivity in Arabidopsis

Supplemental Data: http://www.plantcell.org/content/26/12/4802/suppl/DC1© 2014 American Society of Plant BiologistsMembrane-delimited abscisic acid (ABA) signal transduction plays a critical role in early ABA signaling, but the molecular mechanisms linking core signaling components to the plasma membrane are unclear. We show that transient calcium-dependent interactions of PYR/PYL ABA receptors with membranes are mediated through a 10-member family of C2-domain ABA-related (CAR) proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana. Specifically, we found that PYL4 interacted in an ABA-independent manner with CAR1 in both the plasma membrane and nucleus of plant cells. CAR1 belongs to a plant-specific gene family encoding CAR1 to CAR10 proteins, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation and coimmunoprecipitation assays showed that PYL4-CAR1 as well as other PYR/PYL-CAR pairs interacted in plant cells. The crystal structure of CAR4 was solved, which revealed that, in addition to a classical calcium-dependent lipid binding C2 domain, a specific CAR signature is likely responsible for the interaction with PYR/PYL receptors and their recruitment to phospholipid vesicles. This interaction is relevant for PYR/PYL function and ABA signaling, since different car triple mutants affected in CAR1, CAR4, CAR5, and CAR9 genes showed reduced sensitivity to ABA in seedling establishment and root growth assays. In summary, we identified PYR/PYL-interacting partners that mediate a transient Ca2+-dependent interaction with phospholipid vesicles, which affects PYR/PYL subcellular localization and positively regulates ABA signaling.We thank Joerg Kudla (University of Munster) for kindly providing plasma membrane markers. This work was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion, Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, and Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (Grants BIO2011-23446 to P.L.R and BFU2011-25384 to A. A.; fellowships to L.R., R.A., and A.C.I.-G.; BES-2009- 016569; JAE-DOC contract to M.G.-G.) as well as the Senacyt-Ifarhu (Panama) (fellowship to M.D.).Rodriguez, L.; Gonzalez Guzman, M.; Díaz, M.; Rodrigues, A.; Izquierdo Garcia, AC.; Peirats-Llobet, M.; Fernández López, MA.... (2014). C2-Domain Abscisic Acid-Related Proteins Mediate the Interaction of PYR/PYL/RCAR Abscisic Acid Receptors with the Plasma Membrane and Regulate Abscisic Acid Sensitivity in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell. 26(12):4802-4820. doi:10.1105/tpc.114.129973S48024820261

The Cys-Arg/N-end rule pathway is a general sensor of abiotic stress in flowering plants

Abiotic stresses impact negatively on plant growth, profoundly affecting yield and quality of crops. Although much is known about plant responses, very little is understood at the molecular level about the initial sensing of environmental stress. In plants, hypoxia (low oxygen, which occurs during flooding) is directly sensed by the Cys-Arg/N-end rule pathway of ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, through oxygen-dependent degradation of group VII Ethylene Response Factor transcription factors (ERFVIIs) via amino-terminal (Nt-) cysteine [1, 2]. Using Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), we show that the pathway regulates plant responses to multiple abiotic stresses. In Arabidopsis, genetic analyses revealed that response to these stresses is controlled by N-end rule regulation of ERFVII function. Oxygen sensing via the Cys-Arg/N-end rule in higher eukaryotes is linked through a single mechanism to nitric oxide (NO) sensing [3, 4]. In plants, the major mechanism of NO synthesis is via NITRATE REDUCTASE (NR), an enzyme of nitrogen assimilation [5]. Here, we identify a negative relationship between NR activity and NO levels and stabilization of an artificial Nt-Cys substrate and ERFVII function in response to environmental changes. Furthermore, we show that ERFVIIs enhance abiotic stress responses via physical and genetic interactions with the chromatin-remodeling ATPase BRAHMA. We propose that plants sense multiple abiotic stresses through the Cys-Arg/N-end rule pathway either directly (via oxygen sensing) or indirectly (via NO sensing downstream of NR activity). This single mechanism can therefore integrate environment and response to enhance plant survival

PYL8 mediates ABA perception in the root through non-cell-autonomous and ligand-stabilization-based mechanisms

[EN] The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays a key role regulating root growth, root system architecture, and root adaptive responses, such as hydrotropism. The molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate the action of core ABA signaling components in roots are not fully understood. ABA is perceived through receptors from the PYR/PYL/RCAR family and PP2C coreceptors. PYL8/RCAR3 plays a nonredundant role in regulating primary and lateral root growth. Here we demonstrate that ABA specifically stabilizes PYL8 compared with other ABA receptors and induces accumulation of PYL8 in root nuclei. This requires ABA perception by PYL8 and leads to diminished ubiquitination of PYL8 in roots. The ABA agonist quinabactin, which promotes root ABA signaling through dimeric receptors, fails to stabilize the monomeric receptor PYL8. Moreover, a PYL8 mutant unable to bind ABA and inhibit PP2C is not stabilized by the ligand, whereas a PYL85KR mutant is more stable than PYL8 at endogenous ABA concentrations. The PYL8 transcript was detected in the epidermis and stele of the root meristem; however, the PYL8 protein was also detected in adjacent tissues. Expression of PYL8 driven by tissue-specific promoters revealed movement to adjacent tissues. Hence both inter- and intracellular trafficking of PYL8 appears to occur in the root apical meristem. Our findings reveal a non-cell-autonomous mechanism for hormone receptors and help explain the nonredundant role of PYL8-mediated root ABA signaling.Work in the P.L.R. and F.M. laboratories was supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion, Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional and Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas Grants BIO2014-52537-R and BIO2017-82503-R (to P.L.R.) and BIO2015-64307-R (to F.M.). J.L.-J. was supported by a Juan de la Cierva contract from Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) and by the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Action H2020-MSCA-IF-2015-707477. B.B.-P. was funded by Programa VALi+d GVA APOSTD/2017/039. J.J. was supported by a FPI contract from MINECO and M.A.F. by a Formacion de Profesorado Universitario contract from MINECO. D.D. and M.J.B. were supported by Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Grant BB/M002136/1 and Leverhulme Trust Grant RPG-2016-409.Belda-Palazón, B.; Gonzalez-Garcia, M.; Lozano Juste, J.; Coego Gonzalez, A.; Antoni-Alandes, R.; Julian-Valenzuela, J.; Peirats-Llobet, M.... (2018). PYL8 mediates ABA perception in the root through non-cell-autonomous and ligand-stabilization-based mechanisms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Online). 115(50):E11857-E11863. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1815410115SE11857E1186311550Ubeda-Tomás, S., Beemster, G. T. S., & Bennett, M. J. 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Endodermal ABA Signaling Promotes Lateral Root Quiescence during Salt Stress in Arabidopsis Seedlings. The Plant Cell, 25(1), 324-341. doi:10.1105/tpc.112.107227Feng, W., Lindner, H., Robbins, N. E., & Dinneny, J. R. (2016). Growing Out of Stress: The Role of Cell- and Organ-Scale Growth Control in Plant Water-Stress Responses. The Plant Cell, 28(8), 1769-1782. doi:10.1105/tpc.16.00182Geng, Y., Wu, R., Wee, C. W., Xie, F., Wei, X., Chan, P. M. Y., … Dinneny, J. R. (2013). A Spatio-Temporal Understanding of Growth Regulation during the Salt Stress Response in Arabidopsis. The Plant Cell, 25(6), 2132-2154. doi:10.1105/tpc.113.112896Takahashi, N., Goto, N., Okada, K., & Takahashi, H. (2002). Hydrotropism in abscisic acid, wavy, and gravitropic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana. Planta, 216(2), 203-211. doi:10.1007/s00425-002-0840-3Antoni, R., Gonzalez-Guzman, M., Rodriguez, L., Peirats-Llobet, M., Pizzio, G. A., Fernandez, M. A., … Rodriguez, P. L. (2012). PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE1-LIKE8 Plays an Important Role for the Regulation of Abscisic Acid Signaling in Root. Plant Physiology, 161(2), 931-941. doi:10.1104/pp.112.208678Barberon, M., Vermeer, J. E. M., De Bellis, D., Wang, P., Naseer, S., Andersen, T. G., … Geldner, N. (2016). Adaptation of Root Function by Nutrient-Induced Plasticity of Endodermal Differentiation. Cell, 164(3), 447-459. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.12.021Ondzighi-Assoume, C. A., Chakraborty, S., & Harris, J. M. (2016). Environmental Nitrate Stimulates Abscisic Acid Accumulation in Arabidopsis Root Tips by Releasing It from Inactive Stores. The Plant Cell, 28(3), 729-745. doi:10.1105/tpc.15.00946Irigoyen, M. L., Iniesto, E., Rodriguez, L., Puga, M. I., Yanagawa, Y., Pick, E., … Rubio, V. (2014). Targeted Degradation of Abscisic Acid Receptors Is Mediated by the Ubiquitin Ligase Substrate Adaptor DDA1 in Arabidopsis. 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Calcium-dependent oligomerization of CAR proteins at cell membrane modulates ABA signaling

[EN] Regulation of ion transport in plants is essential for cell function. Abiotic stress unbalances cell ion homeostasis, and plants tend to readjust it, regulating membrane transporters and channels. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and the second messenger Ca2+ are central in such processes, as they are involved in the regulation of protein kinases and phosphatases that control ion transport activity in response to environmental stimuli. The identification and characterization of the molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of ABA and Ca2+ signaling pathways on membrane function are central and could provide opportunities for crop improvement. The C2-domain ABA-related (CAR) family of small proteins is involved in the Ca2+-dependent recruitment of the pyrabactin resistance 1/PYR1like (PYR/PYL) ABA receptors to the membrane. However, to fully understand CAR function, it is necessary to define a molecular mechanism that integrates Ca2+ sensing, membrane interaction, and the recognition of the PYR/PYL interacting partners. We present structural and biochemical data showing that CARs are peripheral membrane proteins that functionally cluster on the membrane and generate strong positive membrane curvature in a Ca2+-dependent manner. These features represent a mechanism for the generation, stabilization, and/or specific recognition of membrane discontinuities. Such structures may act as signaling platforms involved in the recruitment of PYR/PYL receptors and other signaling components involved in cell responses to stress.A.A. and J.A.M. thank the European Syncrotron Radiation Facility and EMBL for access to the synchrotron radiation source. This work was funded by Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) Grants BFU2014-59796-R (to A.A.), BFU2011-28184-C02 (to M.J.S.-B.), and BIO2014-52537-R (to P.L.R.) and Comunidad de Madrid Grant S2010/BMD-2457 (to A.A and M.M.). M.J.S.-B. is supported by Ramon y Cajal Contract RYC-2008-03449 from MINECO and M.D. by a fellowship from Senacyt-Ifarhu. Access to the High Throughput Crystallization facility at European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Grenoble was supported by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme through the Protein Production Platform project (P-CUBE) Grant 227764.Diaz, M.; Sanchez-Barrena, MJ.; Gonzalez Rubio, JM.; Rodríguez Solovey, LN.; Fernández, D.; Antoni-Alandes, R.; Yunta, C.... (2016). Calcium-dependent oligomerization of CAR proteins at cell membrane modulates ABA signaling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113(3):E396-E405. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512779113SE396E4051133Serrano, R., & Rodriguez-Navarro, A. (2001). 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A SAM oligomerization domain shapes the genomic binding landscape of the LEAFY transcription factor

Deciphering the mechanisms directing transcription factors (TFs) to specific genome regions is essential to understand and predict transcriptional regulation. TFs recognize short DNA motifs primarily through their DNA-binding domain. Some TFs also possess an oligomerization domain suspected to potentiate DNA binding but for which the genome-wide influence remains poorly understood. Here we focus on the LEAFY transcription factor, a master regulator of flower development in angiosperms. We have determined the crystal structure of its conserved amino-terminal domain, revealing an unanticipated Sterile Alpha Motif oligomerization domain. We show that this domain is essential to LEAFY floral function. Moreover, combined biochemical and genome-wide assays suggest that oligomerization is required for LEAFY to access regions with low-affinity binding sites or closed chromatin. This finding shows that domains that do not directly contact DNA can nevertheless have a profound impact on the DNA binding landscape of a TF