Synthetic Observations of Carbon Lines of Turbulent Flows in Diffuse Multiphase Interstellar Medium

We examine observational characteristics of multi-phase turbulent flows in the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) using a synthetic radiation field of atomic and molecular lines. We consider the multi-phase ISM which is formed by thermal instability under the irradiation of UV photons with moderate visual extinction $A_V\sim 1$. Radiation field maps of C$^{+}$, C$^0$, and CO line emissions were generated by calculating the non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (nonLTE) level populations from the results of high resolution hydrodynamic simulations of diffuse ISM models. By analyzing synthetic radiation field of carbon lines of [\ion{C}{2}] 158 $\mu$m, [\ion{C}{1}] $^3P_2-^3P_1$ (809 GHz), $^3P_1-^3P_0$ (492 GHz), and CO rotational transitions, we found a high ratio between the lines of high- and low-excitation energies in the diffuse multi-phase interstellar medium. This shows that simultaneous observations of the lines of warm- and cold-gas tracers will be useful in examining the thermal structure, and hence the origin of diffuse interstellar clouds.Comment: 16 pages, 10 figures : accepted for publication in ApJ. PDF version with high resolution figures is available (http://yso.mtk.nao.ac.jp/~ymasako/paper/ms_hires.pdf

The pressure distribution in thermally bistable turbulent flows

We present a systematic numerical study of the effect of turbulent velocity fluctuations on the thermal pressure distribution in thermally bistable flows. The simulations employ a random turbulent driving generated in Fourier space rather than star-like heating. The turbulent fluctuations are characterized by their rms Mach number M and the energy injection wavenumber, k_for. Our results are consistent with the picture that as either of these parameters is increased, the local ratio of turbulent crossing time to cooling time decreases, causing transient structures in which the effective behavior is intermediate between the thermal-equilibrium and adiabatic regimes. As a result, the effective polytropic exponent gamma_ef ranges between ~0.2 to ~1.1. The fraction of high-density zones with P>10^4 Kcm^-3 increases from roughly 0.1% at k_for=2 and M=0.5 to roughly 70% for k_for=16 and M=1.25. A preliminary comparison with the pressure measurements of Jenkins (2004) favors our case with M=0.5 and k_for=2. In all cases, the dynamic range of the pressure summed over the entire density range, typically spans 3-4 orders of magnitude. The total pressure histogram widens as the Mach number is increased, and develops near-power-law tails at high (resp.low) pressures when gamma_ef<~ 0.5 (resp. gamma_ef>~ 1), which occurs at k_for=2 (resp.k_for=16) in our simulations. The opposite side of the pressure histogram decays rapidly, in an approx. lognormal form. Our results show that turbulent advection alone can generate large pressure scatters, with power-law high-P tails for large-scale driving, and provide validation for approaches attempting to derive the shape of the pressure histogram through a change of variable from the known form of the density histogram, such as that performed by MacLow et al.(2004).Comment: to be published in Ap

Two-dimensional AMR simulations of colliding flows

Colliding flows are a commonly used scenario for the formation of molecular clouds in numerical simulations. Due to the thermal instability of the warm neutral medium, turbulence is produced by cooling. We carry out a two-dimensional numerical study of such colliding flows in order to test whether statistical properties inferred from adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) simulations are robust with respect to the applied refinement criteria. We compare probability density functions of various quantities as well as the clump statistics and fractal dimension of the density fields in AMR simulations to a static-grid simulation. The static grid with 2048^2 cells matches the resolution of the most refined subgrids in the AMR simulations. The density statistics is reproduced fairly well by AMR. Refinement criteria based on the cooling time or the turbulence intensity appear to be superior to the standard technique of refinement by overdensity. Nevertheless, substantial differences in the flow structure become apparent. In general, it is difficult to separate numerical effects from genuine physical processes in AMR simulations.Comment: 6 pages, 6 figures, submitted to A&

Protostellar disk formation and transport of angular momentum during magnetized core collapse

Theoretical studies of collapsing clouds have found that even a relatively weak magnetic field (B) may prevent the formation of disks and their fragmentation. However, most previous studies have been limited to cases where B and the rotation axis of the cloud are aligned. We study the transport of angular momentum, and its effects on disk formation, for non-aligned initial configurations and a range magnetic intensities. We perform 3D AMR MHD simulations of magnetically supercritical collapsing dense cores using the code Ramses. We compute the contributions of the processes transporting angular momentum (J), in the envelope and the region of the disk. We clearly define what could be defined as centrifugally supported disks and study their properties. At variance with earlier analyses, we show that the transport of J acts less efficiently in collapsing cores with non-aligned rotation axis and B. Analytically, this result can be understood by taking into account the bending of field lines occurring during the gravitational collapse. For the transport of J, we conclude that magnetic braking in the mean direction of B tends to dominate over both the gravitational and outflow transport of J. We find that massive disks, containing at least 10% of the initial core mass, can form during the earliest stages of star formation even for mass-to-flux ratios as small as 3 to 5 times the critical value. At higher field intensities, the early formation of massive disks is prevented. Given the ubiquity of Class I disks, and because the early formation of massive disks can take place at moderate magnetic intensities, we speculate that for stronger fields, disks will form later, when most of the envelope will have been accreted. In addition, we speculate that some observed early massive disks may actually be outflow cavities, mistaken for disks by projection effects. (Abridged version of the abstract.)Comment: 23 pages, 23 figures, to be published in A&

Disc formation in turbulent cloud cores: Circumventing the magnetic braking catastrophe

We present collapse simulations of strongly magnetised, 100 M_sun, turbulent cloud cores. Around the protostars formed during the collapse Keplerian discs with typical sizes of up to 100 AU build up in contrast to previous simulations neglecting turbulence. Analysing the condensations in which the discs form, we show that the magnetic flux loss is not sufficient to explain the build-up of Keplerian discs. The average magnetic field is strongly inclined to the disc which might reduce the magnetic braking efficiency. However, the main reason for the reduced magnetic braking efficiency is the highly disordered magnetic field in the surroundings of the discs. Furthermore, due to the lack of a coherently rotating structure in the turbulent environment of the disc no toroidal magnetic field necessary for angular momentum extraction can build up. Simultaneously the angular momentum inflow remains high due to local shear flows created by the turbulent motions. We suggest that the "magnetic braking catastrophe" is an artefact of the idealised non-turbulent initial conditions and that turbulence provides a natural mechanism to circumvent this problem.Comment: 4 pages, 2 figures. To appear in the proceedings of 'The Labyrinth of Star Formation' (18-22 June 2012, Chania, Greece), published by Springe

Collapse, outflows and fragmentation of massive, turbulent and magnetized prestellar barotropic cores

Stars and more particularly massive stars, have a drastic impact on galaxy evolution. Yet the conditions in which they form and collapse are still not fully understood. In particular, the influence of the magnetic field on the collapse of massive clumps is relatively unexplored, it is thus of great relevance in the context of the formation of massive stars to investigate its impact. We perform high resolution, MHD simulations of the collapse of hundred solar masses, turbulent and magnetized clouds, using the adaptive mesh refinement code RAMSES. We compute various quantities such as mass distribution, magnetic field and angular momentum within the collapsing core and study the episodic outflows and the fragmentation that occurs during the collapse. The magnetic field has a drastic impact on the cloud evolution. We find that magnetic braking is able to substantially reduce the angular momentum in the inner part of the collapsing cloud. Fast and episodic outflows are being launched with typical velocities of the order of 3-5 km s$^{-1}$ although the highest velocities can be as high as 30-40 km s$^{-1}$. The fragmentation in several objects, is reduced in substantially magnetized clouds with respect to hydrodynamical ones by a factor of the order of 1.5-2. We conclude that magnetic fields have a significant impact on the evolution of massive clumps. In combination with radiation, magnetic fields largely determine the outcome of massive core collapse. We stress that numerical convergence of MHD collapse is a challenging issue. In particular, numerical diffusion appears to be important at high density therefore possibly leading to an over-estimation of the number of fragments.Comment: accepted for publication in A&

Formation of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs

These lectures attempt to expose the most important ideas, which have been proposed to explain the formation of stars with particular emphasis on the formation of brown dwarfs and low-mass stars. We first describe the important physical processes which trigger the collapse of a self-gravitating piece of fluid and regulate the star formation rate in molecular clouds. Then we review the various theories which have been proposed along the years to explain the origin of the stellar initial mass function paying particular attention to four models, namely the competitive accretion and the theories based respectively on stopped accretion, MHD shocks and turbulent dispersion. As it is yet unsettled whether the brown dwarfs form as low-mass stars, we present the theory of brown dwarfs based on disk fragmentation stressing all the uncertainties due to the radiative feedback and magnetic field. Finally, we describe the results of large scale simulations performed to explain the collapse and fragmentation of molecular clouds.Comment: proceedings of the Evry Schatzman School on "Low-mass stars and the transition between stars and brown dwarfs" (Roscoff 2011), to appear in EAS Publication Series (Eds C.Reyl\'e, C.Charbonnel, & M.Schultheis

Simulated CII observations for SPICA/SAFARI

We investigate the case of CII 158 micron observations for SPICA/SAFARI using a three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamical (MHD) simulation of the diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) and the Meudon PDR code. The MHD simulation consists of two converging flows of warm gas (10,000 K) within a cubic box 50 pc in length. The interplay of thermal instability, magnetic field and self-gravity leads to the formation of cold, dense clumps within a warm, turbulent interclump medium. We sample several clumps along a line of sight through the simulated cube and use them as input density profiles in the Meudon PDR code. This allows us to derive intensity predictions for the CII 158 micron line and provide time estimates for the mapping of a given sky area.Comment: 4 pages, 5 figures, to appear in the proceedings of the workshop "The Space Infrared Telescope for Cosmology & Astrophysics: Revealing the Origins of Planets and Galaxies" (July 2009, Oxford, United Kingdom

Gravitational Collapse in Turbulent Molecular Clouds. II. Magnetohydrodynamical Turbulence

Hydrodynamic supersonic turbulence can only prevent local gravitational collapse if the turbulence is driven on scales smaller than the local Jeans lengths in the densest regions, a very severe requirement (Paper I). Magnetic fields have been suggested to support molecular clouds either magnetostatically or via magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves. Whereas the first mechanism would form sheet-like clouds, the second mechanism not only could exert a pressure onto the gas counteracting the gravitational forces, but could lead to a transfer of turbulent kinetic energy down to smaller spatial scales via MHD wave interactions. This turbulent magnetic cascade might provide sufficient energy at small scales to halt local collapse. We test this hypothesis with MHD simulations at resolutions up to 256^3 zones, done with ZEUS-3D. We first derive a resolution criterion for self-gravitating, magnetized gas: in order to prevent collapse of magnetostatically supported regions due to numerical diffusion, the minimum Jeans length must be resolved by four zones. Resolution of MHD waves increases this requirement to roughly six zones. We then find that magnetic fields cannot prevent local collapse unless they provide magnetostatic support. Weaker magnetic fields do somewhat delay collapse and cause it to occur more uniformly across the supported region in comparison to the hydrodynamical case. However, they still cannot prevent local collapse for much longer than a global free-fall time.Comment: 32 pages, 14 figures, accepted by Ap