Caractérisation hydraulique d'un massif calcaire fissuré de Franche-Comté (France)

Un site expérimental représentatif du milieu calcaire fissuré a été étudié dans le Jurassique supérieur de la vallée de la Loue. Un forage carotté de trente mètres a été réalisé et étudié par différentes techniques de laboratoire (porosité, perméabilité, vitesse ultrasonique, quantification de la fissuration) et de terrain (essais hydrauliques par injection entre obturateurs, diagraphies soniques, densité). Le massif rocheux concerné a été exploré en surface à partir de la sismique réfraction.Les principaux résultats obtenus permettent de relier les paramètres hydrauliques à la fissuration du massif calcaire. On constate une mauvaise relation entre les mesures de laboratoire et de terrain par suite d'un effet d'échelle, les investigations étant faites sur des volumes variant de quelques centimètres cubes à plusieurs mètres cubes. En effet, la matrice homogène et isotrope est perturbée par des fissures (fermées ou ouvertes). Le milieu continu représenté par la matrice et observé au laboratoire s'avère discontinu sur le terrain. L'indice le obtenu à partir de la diagraphie sonique paraît intéressant, mais doit être utilisé avec prudence et après correction dans les zones à argilosité reconnue, en effet dans ces zones on constate que pour des valeurs supérieures à 10 de l'indice lc brut, aucun écoulement n'a été mis en évidence par essai hydraulique. Un abaque de correction C (lc) a donc été établi qui tient compte de la teneur en argile et qui permet de proposer un indice corrige le -C (lc) plus fiable.An experimental site in fissured calcareous media has been analysed in the upper jurassic of the Loue valley. A tore of some 30 metres has been drilled and analysed by different laboratory techniques (porosity, permeahility, ultrasonic speed, quantification ol the fissuration) and in the field (hydraulic injection tests between shutters, sonic and density diagraphics data). The rock volumes have been explored at the surface by the refraction sesmic method.ln the tore the fissures are distributed according to four families :- subvertical stylolitic fractures, the horizontal pealo; of which denote the maximum compressive direction of the original tectonic stresses,- mineralized crevices with calcitic filling, closed fissures,- opened fractures which induced the hydraulical quality of limestones.The total porosity of the limestones is characterized by homogeneous values (front 2 to 6 %) and three differents familles of porosity o and the average diameter dm (0.00310 0.27µm) of the accessible apertures in the matrix :- family 1 : 0.003 µm < dm < 0.018 µm, 1.05 % < ø < 2.14 % in relation with intergranular spacing in the cementic phase. The clay in the basal part of the tore indures a great reduction of this kind of porosity,- family 2 : 0.044 µm < dm < 0.11 µm, 0.49 % < ø < 4.39 % in liaison with intergranular spacing between the carbonatic figurative elements (biociasts, Iithoclasts, oolithes and microorganisms),- family 3 : 0.14 µm < dm < 0.27 µm, 0.28 % < ø < 3.13 % in relation with the increasing of the sizes of the figurative elements.A good agreement between permeability k and porosity ø is observed (k=3.4 10-5 - ø4-96 in darcy units).Three diagraphic investigations has been carried out with gamma-gamma measurements (bulk density), with gamma-ray measurements (clay content) and with acoustic compensated measurements (sonic waves speed). The bulk density log is uniform (2.5 to 2.7 g/cm3), the gamma-ray log is increasing down the hole (21 to 29 m) whereas the clay content rises.The acoustic log records the total wave signal chat can be traduced by two computed logs :- speed propagation of the S waves (Vs speed) and P waves (Vp speed) with ihe ratio Vp/Vs,- Poisson coefficients and Young modulus.The principal results suggest the existence of a liaison between hydraulic parameters and the fissuration of the calcareous formation where three levels of fracturation are observed (from 11 to 12 m, from 16 to 18 m and from 19 to 20m).The permeability values of the limestone matrix cores ara relatively homogeneous (1 to 19 10-5 darcy) with a decrease in the 23 to 27 m section of the bore-hole where a clayed cernent is detected. The hydraulic conductivity of the fractured zone, as determined by means of hydraulic injection tests between shutters leads to values of 1.10-6 to 8.10-6 m/s (# 0.1 to 0.8 darcy). Five zones have been choses for the hydraulic tests in liaison with different parts of the bore hole. The high values ot permeability k are in accordance with the high le index values of the open fractured zones.A tirst local calibration function is proposed :lc=7.13 Log k + 51A pour relation connects the laboratory and field results because the elementary volume is increasing from cubic centimeters to some cubic matera. The homogeneity and the isotropy of matrix is disturbed hy the fissures (shut or open).The matrix medium is continuous on the laboratory scate and discontinuous in the field. The ultra-sonic investigation confirms the liaison between the high values of the sonic P waves speed and the principal regional direction ot tectonical stress. The total acoustic recording yields the knowledge of the S and P waves speeds of in correlation with subvertical fractures when the speed value variations are numerus.Three fracture zones are distinguished between 11 to 12 m, 17 to 18 m and 19 to 20 m. The lc index obtained from the sonic log must be used cautiously aller correction in the true clayed zones. In these zones the values of the le index are above 10 without waler flowing in the bore hale alter hydraulic testing. We propose the use of a corrective chart C (lc) to correct for the clay effect and a new corrected index lc - C (lc) is more reliable.An adjusted statistical graphical chart is proposed with the following expression : C (lc) = ß • Xα with α= 1.84 and ß = 0.088 (valid only for limestones) and X : lite clay index obtained from the gamma-ray measurements. The le index values histogram localizes the permeable zones of limestones with hydreulically active open fractures.Measurement of the speed variation of P sesmic waves on the bottom of the quarry by the means of the refraction method leads to a good agreement between the maximum speed anisotropy direction and the major fracture direction (N 120°-N 140°) which is perpendicular to the minimum anisotropy sesmic speed direction (N 40° -N 50°). The open fractures direction measured on the core is adjoining about N 135°-N 145° when the direction of maximum anisotropy in the quarry is near N 140°

Five decades of northern land carbon uptake revealed by the interhemispheric CO2 gradient

The global land and ocean carbon sinks have increased proportionally with increasing carbon dioxide emissions during the past decades 1 . It is thought that Northern Hemisphere lands make a dominant contribution to the global land carbon sink 2–7 ; however, the long-term trend of the northern land sink remains uncertain. Here, using measurements of the interhemispheric gradient of atmospheric carbon dioxide from 1958 to 2016, we show that the northern land sink remained stable between the 1960s and the late 1980s, then increased by 0.5 ± 0.4 petagrams of carbon per year during the 1990s and by 0.6 ± 0.5 petagrams of carbon per year during the 2000s. The increase of the northern land sink in the 1990s accounts for 65% of the increase in the global land carbon flux during that period. The subsequent increase in the 2000s is larger than the increase in the global land carbon flux, suggesting a coincident decrease of carbon uptake in the Southern Hemisphere. Comparison of our findings with the simulations of an ensemble of terrestrial carbon models 5,8 over the same period suggests that the decadal change in the northern land sink between the 1960s and the 1990s can be explained by a combination of increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, climate variability and changes in land cover. However, the increase during the 2000s is underestimated by all models, which suggests the need for improved consideration of changes in drivers such as nitrogen deposition, diffuse light and land-use change. Overall, our findings underscore the importance of Northern Hemispheric land as a carbon sink

Five decades of northern land carbon uptake revealed by the interhemispheric CO2 gradient

The global land and ocean carbon sinks have increased proportionally with increasing carbon dioxide emissions during the past decades 1 . It is thought that Northern Hemisphere lands make a dominant contribution to the global land carbon sink 2–7 ; however, the long-term trend of the northern land sink remains uncertain. Here, using measurements of the interhemispheric gradient of atmospheric carbon dioxide from 1958 to 2016, we show that the northern land sink remained stable between the 1960s and the late 1980s, then increased by 0.5 ± 0.4 petagrams of carbon per year during the 1990s and by 0.6 ± 0.5 petagrams of carbon per year during the 2000s. The increase of the northern land sink in the 1990s accounts for 65% of the increase in the global land carbon flux during that period. The subsequent increase in the 2000s is larger than the increase in the global land carbon flux, suggesting a coincident decrease of carbon uptake in the Southern Hemisphere. Comparison of our findings with the simulations of an ensemble of terrestrial carbon models 5,8 over the same period suggests that the decadal change in the northern land sink between the 1960s and the 1990s can be explained by a combination of increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, climate variability and changes in land cover. However, the increase during the 2000s is underestimated by all models, which suggests the need for improved consideration of changes in drivers such as nitrogen deposition, diffuse light and land-use change. Overall, our findings underscore the importance of Northern Hemispheric land as a carbon sink

Reducing uncertainties in decadal variability of the global carbon budget with multiple datasets

Conventional calculations of the global carbon budget infer the land sink as a residual between emissions, atmospheric accumulation, and the ocean sink. Thus, the land sink accumulates the errors from the other flux terms and bears the largest uncertainty. Here, we present a Bayesian fusion approach that combines multiple observations in different carbon reservoirs to optimize the land (B) and ocean (O) carbon sinks, land use change emissions (L), and indirectly fossil fuel emissions (F) from 1980 to 2014. Compared with the conventional approach, Bayesian optimization decreases the uncertainties in B by 41% and in O by 46%. The L uncertainty decreases by 47%, whereas F uncertainty is marginally improved through the knowledge of natural fluxes. Both ocean and net land uptake (B + L) rates have positive trends of 29 ± 8 and 37 ± 17 Tg C⋅y−2 since 1980, respectively. Our Bayesian fusion of multiple observations reduces uncertainties, thereby allowing us to isolate important variability in global carbon cycle processes

Accounting for meteorological biases in simulated plumes using smarter metrics

In the next few years, numerous satellites with high-resolution instruments dedicated to the imaging of atmospheric gaseous compounds will be launched, to finely monitor emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants. Processing the resulting images of plumes from cities and industrial plants to infer the emissions of these sources can be challenging. In particular traditional atmospheric inversion techniques, relying on objective comparisons to simulations with atmospheric chemistry transport models, may poorly fit the observed plume due to modelling errors rather than due to uncertainties in the emissions. The present article discusses how these images can be adequately compared to simulated concentrations to limit the weight of modelling errors due to the meteorology used to analyse the images. For such comparisons, the usual pixel-wise ℒ2 norm may not be suitable, since it does not linearly penalise a displacement between two identical plumes. By definition, such a metric considers a displacement as an accumulation of significant local amplitude discrepancies. This is the so-called double penalty issue. To avoid this issue, we propose three solutions: (i) compensate for position error, due to a displacement, before the local comparison; (ii) use non-local metrics of density distribution comparison; and (iii) use a combination of the first two solutions. All the metrics are evaluated using first a catalogue of analytical plumes and then more realistic plumes simulated with a mesoscale Eulerian atmospheric transport model, with an emphasis on the sensitivity of the metrics to position error and the concentration values within the plumes. As expected, the metrics with the upstream correction are found to be less sensitive to position error in both analytical and realistic conditions. Furthermore, in realistic cases, we evaluate the weight of changes in the norm and the direction of the four-dimensional wind fields in our metric values. This comparison highlights the link between differences in the synoptic-scale winds direction and position error. Hence the contribution of the latter to our new metrics is reduced, thus limiting misinterpretation. Furthermore, the new metrics also avoid the double penalty issue.</p

Recent Changes in Global Photosynthesis and Terrestrial Ecosystem Respiration Constrained From Multiple Observations

To assess global carbon cycle variability, we decompose the net land carbon sink into the sum of gross primary productivity (GPP), terrestrial ecosystem respiration (TER), and fire emissions and apply a Bayesian framework to constrain these fluxes between 1980 and 2014. The constrained GPP and TER fluxes show an increasing trend of only half of the prior trend simulated by models. From the optimization, we infer that TER increased in parallel with GPP from 1980 to 1990, but then stalled during the cooler periods, in 1990-1994 coincident with the Pinatubo eruption, and during the recent warming hiatus period. After each of these TER stalling periods, TER is found to increase faster than GPP, explaining a relative reduction of the net land sink. These results shed light on decadal variations of GPP and TER and suggest that they exhibit different responses to temperature anomalies over the last 35 years

The consolidated European synthesis of CO2 emissions and removals for the European Union and United Kingdom: 1990-2018

Reliable quantification of the sources and sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), including that of their trends and uncertainties, is essential to monitoring the progress in mitigating anthropogenic emissions under the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. This study provides a consolidated synthesis of estimates for all anthropogenic and natural sources and sinks of CO2 for the European Union and UK (EU27 + UK), derived from a combination of state-of-the-art bottom-up (BU) and top-down (TD) data sources and models. Given the wide scope of the work and the variety of datasets involved, this study focuses on identifying essential questions which need to be answered to properly understand the differences between various datasets, in particular with regards to the less-well-characterized fluxes from managed ecosystems. The work integrates recent emission inventory data, process-based ecosystem model results, data-driven sector model results and inverse modeling estimates over the period 1990-2018. BU and TD products are compared with European national greenhouse gas inventories (NGHGIs) reported under the UNFCCC in 2019, aiming to assess and understand the differences between approaches. For the uncertainties in NGHGIs, we used the standard deviation obtained by varying parameters of inventory calculations, reported by the member states following the IPCC Guidelines. Variation in estimates produced with other methods, like atmospheric inversion models (TD) or spatially disaggregated inventory datasets (BU), arises from diverse sources including within-model uncertainty related to parameterization as well as structural differences between models. In comparing NGHGIs with other approaches, a key source of uncertainty is that related to different system boundaries and emission categories (CO2 fossil) and the use of different land use definitions for reporting emissions from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) activities (CO2 land). At the EU27 + UK level, the NGHGI (2019) fossil CO2 emissions (including cement production) account for 2624 Tg CO2 in 2014 while all the other seven bottom-up sources are consistent with the NGHGIs and report a mean of 2588 (± 463 Tg CO2). The inversion reports 2700 Tg CO2 (± 480 Tg CO2), which is well in line with the national inventories. Over 2011-2015, the CO2 land sources and sinks from NGHGI estimates report-90 Tg C yr-1 ± 30 Tg C yr-1 while all other BU approaches report a mean sink of-98 Tg C yr-1 (± 362 Tg of C from dynamic global vegetation models only). For the TD model ensemble results, we observe a much larger spread for regional inversions (i.e., mean of 253 Tg C yr-1 ± 400 Tg C yr-1). This concludes that (a) current independent approaches are consistent with NGHGIs and (b) their uncertainty is too large to allow a verification because of model differences and probably also because of the definition of "CO2 flux"obtained from different approaches. The referenced datasets related to figures are visualized. © 2021 Ana Maria Roxana Petrescu et al

Joint Europa Mission (JEM): a multi-scale study of Europa to characterize its habitability and search for extant life

Europa is the closest and probably the most promising target to search for extant life in the Solar System, based on complementary evidence that it may fulfil the key criteria for habitability: the Galileo discovery of a sub-surface ocean; the many indications that the ice shell is active and may be partly permeable to transfer of chemical species, biomolecules and elementary forms of life; the identification of candidate thermal and chemical energy sources necessary to drive a metabolic activity near the ocean floor. In this article we are proposing that ESA collaborates with NASA to design and fly jointly an ambitious and exciting planetary mission, which we call the Joint Europa Mission (JEM), to reach two objectives: perform a full characterization of Europa's habitability with the capabilities of a Europa orbiter, and search for bio-signatures in the environment of Europa (surface, subsurface and exosphere) by the combination of an orbiter and a lander. JEM can build on the advanced understanding of this system which the missions preceding JEM will provide: Juno, JUICE and Europa Clipper, and on the Europa lander concept currently designed by NASA (Maize, report to OPAG, 2019). We propose the following overarching goals for our Joint Europa Mission (JEM): Understand Europa as a complex system responding to Jupiter system forcing, characterize the habitability of its potential biosphere, and search for life at its surface and in its sub-surface and exosphere. We address these goals by a combination of five Priority Scientific Objectives, each with focused measurement objectives providing detailed constraints on the science payloads and on the platforms used by the mission. The JEM observation strategy will combine three types of scientific measurement sequences: measurements on a high-latitude, low-altitude Europan orbit; in-situ measurements to be performed at the surface, using a soft lander; and measurements during the final descent to Europa's surface. The implementation of these three observation sequences will rest on the combination of two science platforms: a soft lander to perform all scientific measurements at the surface and sub-surface at a selected landing site, and an orbiter to perform the orbital survey and descent sequences. We describe a science payload for the lander and orbiter that will meet our science objectives. We propose an innovative distribution of roles for NASA and ESA; while NASA would provide an SLS launcher, the lander stack and most of the mission operations, ESA would provide the carrier-orbiter-relay platform and a stand-alone astrobiology module for the characterization of life at Europa's surface: the Astrobiology Wet Laboratory (AWL). Following this approach, JEM will be a major exciting joint venture to the outer Solar System of NASA and ESA, working together toward one of the most exciting scientific endeavours of the 21st century: to search for life beyond our own planet

Seismic Constraints on the Thickness and Structure of the Martian Crust from InSight

NASA¿s InSight mission [1] has for the first time placed a very broad-band seismometer on the surface of Mars. The Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS) [2] has been collecting continuous data since early February 2019. The main focus of InSight is to enhance our understanding of the internal structure and dynamics of Mars, which includes the goal to better constrain the crustal thickness of the planet [3]. Knowing the present-day crustal thickness of Mars has important implications for its thermal evolution [4] as well as for the partitioning of silicates and heat-producing elements between the different layers of Mars. Current estimates for the crustal thickness of Mars are based on modeling the relationship between topography and gravity [5,6], but these studies rely on different assumptions, e.g. on the density of the crust and upper mantle, or the bulk silicate composition of the planet and the crust. The resulting values for the average crustal thickness differ by more than 100%, from 30 km to more than 100 km [7]. New independent constraints from InSight will be based on seismically determining the crustal thickness at the landing site. This single firm measurement of crustal thickness at one point on the planet will allow to constrain both the average crustal thickness of Mars as well as thickness variations across the planet when combined with constraints from gravity and topography [8]. Here we describe the determination of the crustal structure and thickness at the InSight landing site based on seismic receiver functions for three marsquakes compared with autocorrelations of InSight data [9].We acknowledge NASA, CNES, partner agencies and institutions (UKSA, SSO,DLR, JPL, IPGP-CNRS, ETHZ, IC, MPS-MPG) and the operators of JPL, SISMOC, MSDS, IRIS-DMC and PDS for providing SEED SEIS data. InSight data is archived in the PDS, and a full list of archives in the Geosciences, Atmospheres, and Imaging nodes is at https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/insight/. This work was partially carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. ©2021, California Institute of Technology. Government sponsorship acknowledge