Infotropism as the underlying principle of perceptual organization

Whether perceptual organization favors the simplest or most likely interpretation of a distal stimulus has long been debated. An unbridgeable gulf has seemed to separate these, the Gestalt and Helmholtzian viewpoints. But in recent decades, the proposal that likelihood and simplicity are two sides of the same coin has been gaining ground, to the extent that their equivalence is now widely assumed. What then arises is a desire to know whether the two principles can be reduced to one. Applying Occam's Razor in this way is particularly desirable given that, as things stand, an account referencing one principle alone cannot be completely satisfactory. The present paper argues that unification of the two principles is possible, and that it can be achieved in terms of an incremental notion of `information seeking' (infotropism). Perceptual processing that is infotropic can be shown to target both simplicity and likelihood. The ability to see perceptual organization as governed by either objective can then be explained in terms of it being an infotropic process. Infotropism can be identified as the principle which underlies, and thus generalizes the principles of likelihood and simplicity

Visual Functions Generating Conscious Seeing

Visual functions are reviewed that coincide with conscious as opposed to unconscious vision. Four stages of vision are identified, going from the fully invisible, to subjectively invisible, unattended, and clearly visible. It is proposed that feature extraction, categorization, and some aspects of visual inference occur during full and subjective invisibility. Functions related to perceptual organization, such as grouping and figure-ground segregation, occur during inattention as well as full visibility. It is argued that perceptual organization is the function that is central to understanding the transition from unconscious to conscious seeing. It is discussed what this implies for theories of consciousness such as Recurrent Processing Theory, Higher Order Thought Theory, Integrated Information Theory, and Global Neuronal Workspace Theory.</p

Laminar Cortical Dynamics of 3D Surface Perception: Stratification, transparency, and Neon Color Spreading

How does the laminar organization of cortical circuitry in areas VI and V2 give rise to 3D percepts of stratification, transparency, and neon color spreading in response to 2D pictures and 3D scenes? Psychophysical experiments have shown that such 3D percepts are sensitive to whether contiguous image regions have the same relative contrast polarity (dark-light or lightdark), yet long-range perceptual grouping is known to pool over opposite contrast polarities. The ocularity of contiguous regions is also critical for neon color spreading: Having different ocularity despite the contrast relationship that favors neon spreading blocks the spread. In addition, half visible points in a stereogram can induce near-depth transparency if the contrast relationship favors transparency in the half visible areas. It thus seems critical to have the whole contrast relationship in a monocular configuration, since splitting it between two stereogram images cancels the effect. What adaptive functions of perceptual grouping enable it to both preserve sensitivity to monocular contrast and also to pool over opposite contrasts? Aspects of cortical development, grouping, attention, perceptual learning, stereopsis and 3D planar surface perception have previously been analyzed using a 3D LAMINART model of cortical areas VI, V2, and V4. The present work consistently extends this model to show how like-polarity competition between VI simple cells in layer 4 may be combined with other LAMINART grouping mechanisms, such as cooperative pooling of opposite polarities at layer 2/3 complex cells. The model also explains how the Metelli Rules can lead to transparent percepts, how bistable transparency percepts can arise in which either surface can be perceived as transparent, and how such a transparency reversal can be facilitated by an attention shift. The like-polarity inhibition prediction is consistent with lateral masking experiments in which two f1anking Gabor patches with the same contrast polarity as the target increase the target detection threshold when they approach the target. It is also consistent with LAMINART simulations of cortical development. Other model explanations and testable predictions will also be presented.Air Force Office of Naval Research (F49620-01-1-0397); Office of Naval Research (N00014-01-1-0624

The role of informal, unstructured practice in developing football expertise: the case of Brazilian Pelada

The aim of this paper is to provide explanation and discussion on how unconventional socio-cultural constraints influence the development of skill and expertise of Brazilian football players. On this basis, the central question of this research is this: What are the influential environmental constraints on the development of perceptual-motor skills and expertise of Brazilian football players? The epistemological and methodological assumptions of the “contextualised skill acquisition research” (CSAR) (see Uehara et al., 2014) are used as an underpinning framework for data collection and organization of material. Drawing upon the notion of ethnographic strategies of inquiry for generating and analyzing data, we used qualitative methods such as contextual analysis, participant-observation, and open-ended interviews. At the micro-level of Brazilian society “pelada” emerges as one of the socio-cultural constraints that shapes the talent of Brazilian football players by influencing the development of their perceptual-motor expertise

An empirical investigation of the perceptions of the successful woman in management

This research paper is an empirical study of the perceptual differences of male management and the female professional employee population at Philip Morris U.S.A. Operations. The female professional employee population has been further categorized into two groups, successful (grade 10 and above) and all other exempt females (those who have yet to attain the stated level to be considered successful). The perceptual differences between the three groups was determined by responses to a survey administered to a statistically valid representative sample of the male management and female populations (2). The data from the survey was examined for significant differences from that which has been reported in literature from similar studies. In addition, analyses were conducted to identify discriminative perceptual differences between male and female respondents. Finally, the data was examined for group differences in order to discover evidence of perceived differences based on success or sex type. This data will be valuable for identifying the differences in what female professionals and male management consider: success, success related behavior, and organization actions aimed at helping females achieve success at Philip Morris

Traditional and new principles of perceptual grouping

Perceptual grouping refers to the process of determining which regions and parts of the visual scene belong together as parts of higher order perceptual units such as objects or patterns. In the early 20th century, Gestalt psychologists identified a set of classic grouping principles which specified how some image features lead to grouping between elements given that all other factors were held constant. Modern vision scientists have expanded this list to cover a wide range of image features but have also expanded the importance of learning and other non-image factors. Unlike early Gestalt accounts which were based largely on visual demonstrations, modern theories are often explicitly quantitative and involve detailed models of how various image features modulate grouping. Work has also been done to understand the rules by which different grouping principles integrate to form a final percept. This chapter gives an overview of the classic principles, modern developments in understanding them, and new principles and the evidence for them. There is also discussion of some of the larger theoretical issues about grouping such as at what stage of visual processing it occurs and what types of neural mechanisms may implement grouping principles

Measuring the World: Olfaction as a Process Model of Perception

How much does stimulus input shape perception? The common-sense view is that our perceptions are representations of objects and their features and that the stimulus structures the perceptual object. The problem for this view concerns perceptual biases as responsible for distortions and the subjectivity of perceptual experience. These biases are increasingly studied as constitutive factors of brain processes in recent neuroscience. In neural network models the brain is said to cope with the plethora of sensory information by predicting stimulus regularities on the basis of previous experiences. Drawing on this development, this chapter analyses perceptions as processes. Looking at olfaction as a model system, it argues for the need to abandon a stimulus-centred perspective, where smells are thought of as stable percepts, computationally linked to external objects such as odorous molecules. Perception here is presented as a measure of changing signal ratios in an environment informed by expectancy effects from top-down processes

The Self-Organization of Speech Sounds

The speech code is a vehicle of language: it defines a set of forms used by a community to carry information. Such a code is necessary to support the linguistic interactions that allow humans to communicate. How then may a speech code be formed prior to the existence of linguistic interactions? Moreover, the human speech code is discrete and compositional, shared by all the individuals of a community but different across communities, and phoneme inventories are characterized by statistical regularities. How can a speech code with these properties form? We try to approach these questions in the paper, using the ``methodology of the artificial''. We build a society of artificial agents, and detail a mechanism that shows the formation of a discrete speech code without pre-supposing the existence of linguistic capacities or of coordinated interactions. The mechanism is based on a low-level model of sensory-motor interactions. We show that the integration of certain very simple and non language-specific neural devices leads to the formation of a speech code that has properties similar to the human speech code. This result relies on the self-organizing properties of a generic coupling between perception and production within agents, and on the interactions between agents. The artificial system helps us to develop better intuitions on how speech might have appeared, by showing how self-organization might have helped natural selection to find speech

Unconscious Inference Theories of Cognitive Acheivement

This chapter argues that the only tenable unconscious inferences theories of cognitive achievement are ones that employ a theory internal technical notion of representation, but that once we give cash-value definitions of the relevant notions of representation and inference, there is little left of the ordinary notion of representation. We suggest that the real value of talk of unconscious inferences lies in (a) their heuristic utility in helping us to make fruitful predictions, such as about illusions, and (b) their providing a high-level description of the functional organization of subpersonal faculties that makes clear how they equip an agent to navigate its environment and pursue its goals

Perceptual organization and its influence upon attention

Humans are able to control so much of their environment not through brute strength or enhanced sensory receptors, but through our ability to understand the world around us. In order to make sense of the world around us we need to organize the information that our sensory systems receive. One of the most fundamental steps in this organizational process lies in the construction of objects. By breaking down our sensory input into objects the mind provides a basis upon which it can begin to scaffold our understanding of the world. This thesis therefore explores the basic stages at which the visual system organizes our sensory input into distinct objects. It explores these stages by exploiting the fact that the brain’s limited processing resources can be selectively allocated on the basis of ‘object-hood’. This allocation of processing resources, or attention, on the basis of these early stages of segmentation is commonly referred to as ‘object based attention’. ‘Object based attention’ and perceptual organisation are explored in three sections in this thesis: Understanding the Phenomenon of Object Based Attention. The first three chapters of this thesis seeks to further our understanding of the phenomenon of ‘object based attention’, for example, chapter 3 explores whether the visual system can simultaneously parse several objects as potential units of attention, or whether it can only segment one or two objects at a time. Object Based Attention, a Tool to Explore the Nature of Perceptual Organisation The second section of this thesis attempts to use the phenomenon of ‘object based attention’ as a tool to explore the nature of perceptual representations, for example chapter 5 tests whether different modalities (in particular vision and touch) are able to directly share information about objects in order to build up an integrated model of the external world. Object Based Attention, Perceptual Organisation and Shape Processing Area LO. In the final section of this thesis the nature of perceptual organization is explored in a patient with a very specific form of brain damage that enables us to ask what areas of the brain are critically required for different aspects of perceptual organization