Seeking systematicity in variation : theoretical and methodological considerations on the “variety” concept

One centennial discussion in linguistics concerns whether languages, or linguistic systems, are, essentially, homogeneous or rather show “structured heterogeneity.” In this contribution, the question is addressed whether and how sociolinguistically defined systems (or ‘varieties’) are to be distinguished in a heterogeneous linguistic landscape: to what extent can structure be found in the myriads of language variants heard in everyday language use? We first elaborate on the theoretical importance of this ‘variety question’ by relating it to current approaches from, among others, generative linguistics (competing grammars), sociolinguistics (style-shifting, polylanguaging), and cognitive linguistics (prototype theory). Possible criteria for defining and detecting varieties are introduced, which are subsequently tested empirically, using a self-compiled corpus of spoken Dutch in West Flanders (Belgium). This empirical study demonstrates that the speech repertoire of the studied West Flemish speakers consists of four varieties, viz. a fairly stable dialect variety, a more or less virtual standard Dutch variety, and two intermediate varieties, which we will label ‘cleaned-up dialect’ and ‘substandard.’ On the methodological level, this case-study underscores the importance of speech corpora comprising both inter- and intra-speaker variation on the one hand, and the merits of triangulating qualitative and quantitative approaches on the other

Emergence of Self-Organized Symbol-Based Communication \ud in Artificial Creatures

In this paper, we describe a digital scenario where we simulated the emergence of self-organized symbol-based communication among artificial creatures inhabiting a \ud virtual world of unpredictable predatory events. In our experiment, creatures are autonomous agents that learn symbolic relations in an unsupervised manner, with no explicit feedback, and are able to engage in dynamical and autonomous communicative interactions with other creatures, even simultaneously. In order to synthesize a behavioral ecology and infer the minimum organizational constraints for the design of our creatures, \ud we examined the well-studied case of communication in vervet monkeys. Our results show that the creatures, assuming the role of sign users and learners, behave collectively as a complex adaptive system, where self-organized communicative interactions play a \ud major role in the emergence of symbol-based communication. We also strive in this paper for a careful use of the theoretical concepts involved, including the concepts of symbol and emergence, and we make use of a multi-level model for explaining the emergence of symbols in semiotic systems as a basis for the interpretation of inter-level relationships in the semiotic processes we are studying

Percepcija sličnosti kognata

It has been widely acknowledged that language typology that is, the structural distance between languages which can be objectively measured, plays an important role in the process of language acquisition and processing. However, as it is often the case with any matter that involves human cognition and perception, humans do not perceive the objective distance between languages in the same way. About four decades ago Kellerman (1983) introduced the term psychotypology to refer to the perception of the degree of typological proximity which strongly influences the extent to which one will attempt to transfer from one language to another. The perception of similarity at the lexical level is the focus of the present study and it is our aim to shed some light on the variables which can influence it. An instrument consisting of 54 lexical items in Croatian, paired with their cognates in six different languages (nine cognate pairs per language), was given to 110 Croatian participants in order to measure their perception of similarity between the cognates. Based on the previous research into subjective similarity and receptive multilingualism, there are two types of variables which affect the subjective similarity: item-related and participant related. Their effect is tested in the study. In addition, the psychotypology at the language system level is believed to influence the similarity perception at the level of items as well. The results of the study generally corroborate some of the previous findings related to the item-related variables but there are also some unexpected findings in the similarity ratings accross six different languages. The study suggests that psychotopology at the language system level plays a role in similarity ratings of lexical items.Postoji generalni konsenzus kada je riječ o jezičnoj tipologiji, to jest, strukturnoj udaljenosti između jezika koju je moguće objektivno izmjeriti, i njenoj važnoj ulozi u procesu usvajanja i procesiranja jezika. Ipak, kako često i biva slučaj s pojavama koje uključuju ljudsku kogniciju i percepciju, ljudi ne percipiraju objektivnu jezičnu udaljenost na isti način. Prije otprilike četiri desetljeća, Kellerman (1983) uvodi termin psihotipologija, koji označava percepciju stupnja tipološke bliskosti koja snažno utječe na transfer elemenata iz jednoga jezika u drugi. Percepcija sličnosti na nivou leksika je fokus ovoga istraživanja, a cilj je pokušati pojasniti varijable koje mogu utjecati na percepciju. Upitnik s 54 riječi na hrvatskome jeziku te njihovim ekvivalentima u šest različitih jezika (devet parova kognata po jeziku) ispunilo je 110 hrvatskih ispitanika kako bi se izmjerila njihova percepcija sličnosti tih kognata. Temeljem prethodnih istraživanja subjektivne sličnosti i receptivne višejezičnosti, postoje dva tipa varijabli koje utječu na subjektivnu sličnost: varijable povezane s kognatima te sa samim ispitanicima. U ovom se istraživanju ispituje njihov efekt. Također, smatra se da psihotipologija na razini jezičnoga sustava također utječe na percepciju sličnosti na razini riječi. Rezultati istraživanja generalno potvrđuju neke od prethodnih pronalazaka, no došlo je i do neočekivanih rezultata u varijablama povezanima s kognatima u ocjenjivanju sličnosti šest jezika. Istraživanje ukazuje na to da psihotipologija na razini jezičnoga sustava ima ulogu u procjenjivanju sličnosti riječi

Percepcija sličnosti kognata

It has been widely acknowledged that language typology that is, the structural distance between languages which can be objectively measured, plays an important role in the process of language acquisition and processing. However, as it is often the case with any matter that involves human cognition and perception, humans do not perceive the objective distance between languages in the same way. About four decades ago Kellerman (1983) introduced the term psychotypology to refer to the perception of the degree of typological proximity which strongly influences the extent to which one will attempt to transfer from one language to another. The perception of similarity at the lexical level is the focus of the present study and it is our aim to shed some light on the variables which can influence it. An instrument consisting of 54 lexical items in Croatian, paired with their cognates in six different languages (nine cognate pairs per language), was given to 110 Croatian participants in order to measure their perception of similarity between the cognates. Based on the previous research into subjective similarity and receptive multilingualism, there are two types of variables which affect the subjective similarity: item-related and participant related. Their effect is tested in the study. In addition, the psychotypology at the language system level is believed to influence the similarity perception at the level of items as well. The results of the study generally corroborate some of the previous findings related to the item-related variables but there are also some unexpected findings in the similarity ratings accross six different languages. The study suggests that psychotopology at the language system level plays a role in similarity ratings of lexical items.Postoji generalni konsenzus kada je riječ o jezičnoj tipologiji, to jest, strukturnoj udaljenosti između jezika koju je moguće objektivno izmjeriti, i njenoj važnoj ulozi u procesu usvajanja i procesiranja jezika. Ipak, kako često i biva slučaj s pojavama koje uključuju ljudsku kogniciju i percepciju, ljudi ne percipiraju objektivnu jezičnu udaljenost na isti način. Prije otprilike četiri desetljeća, Kellerman (1983) uvodi termin psihotipologija, koji označava percepciju stupnja tipološke bliskosti koja snažno utječe na transfer elemenata iz jednoga jezika u drugi. Percepcija sličnosti na nivou leksika je fokus ovoga istraživanja, a cilj je pokušati pojasniti varijable koje mogu utjecati na percepciju. Upitnik s 54 riječi na hrvatskome jeziku te njihovim ekvivalentima u šest različitih jezika (devet parova kognata po jeziku) ispunilo je 110 hrvatskih ispitanika kako bi se izmjerila njihova percepcija sličnosti tih kognata. Temeljem prethodnih istraživanja subjektivne sličnosti i receptivne višejezičnosti, postoje dva tipa varijabli koje utječu na subjektivnu sličnost: varijable povezane s kognatima te sa samim ispitanicima. U ovom se istraživanju ispituje njihov efekt. Također, smatra se da psihotipologija na razini jezičnoga sustava također utječe na percepciju sličnosti na razini riječi. Rezultati istraživanja generalno potvrđuju neke od prethodnih pronalazaka, no došlo je i do neočekivanih rezultata u varijablama povezanima s kognatima u ocjenjivanju sličnosti šest jezika. Istraživanje ukazuje na to da psihotipologija na razini jezičnoga sustava ima ulogu u procjenjivanju sličnosti riječi

Chimpanzee faces under the magnifying glass: emerging methods reveal cross-species similarities and individuality

Independently, we created descriptive systems to characterize chimpanzee facial behavior, responding to a common need to have an objective, standardized coding system to ask questions about primate facial behaviors. Even with slightly different systems, we arrive at similar outcomes, with convergent conclusions about chimpanzee facial mobility. This convergence is a validation of the importance of the approach, and provides support for the future use of a facial action coding system for chimpanzees,ChimpFACS. Chimpanzees share many facial behaviors with those of humans. Therefore, processes and mechanisms that explain individual differences in facial activity can be compared with the use of a standardized systems such asChimpFACSandFACS. In this chapter we describe our independent methodological approaches, comparing how we arrived at our facial coding categories. We present some Action Descriptors (ADs) from Gaspar’s initial studies, especially focusing on an ethogram of chimpanzee and bonobo facial behavior, based on studies conducted between 1997 and 2004 at three chimpanzee colonies (The Detroit Zoo; Cleveland Metroparks Zoo; and Burger’s Zoo) and two bonobo colonies (The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium; The Milwaukee County Zoo). We discuss the potential significance of arising issues, the minor qualitative species differences that were found, and the larger quantitative differences in particular facial behaviors observed between species, e.g., bonobos expressed more movements containing particular action units (Brow Lowerer, Lip Raiser, Lip Corner Puller) compared with chimpanzees. The substantial interindividual variation in facial behavior within each species was most striking. Considering individual differences and the impact of development, we highlight the flexibility in facial activity of chimpanzees. We discuss the meaning of facial behaviors in nonhuman primates, addressing specifically individual attributes of Social Attraction, facial expressivity, and the connection of facial behavior to emotion. We do not rule out the communicative function of facial behavior, in which case an individual’s properties of facial behavior are seen as influencing his or her social life, but provide strong arguments in support of the role of facial behavior in the expression of internal states

Investigating the psychological and emotional dimensions in instructed language learning: obstacles and possibilities

In this article I put forth the core argument that Second Language Acquisition (SLA) needs to account for the psychological and emotional dimensions of second language (L2) learning, but that a number of epistemological and methodological difficulties must be surmounted before this new research program can be a reality. To illustrate my arguments, I examine in depth 2 research programs developed by my colleagues and me over the last decade: research on extraversion as a psychological variable investigated within the tradition of individual differences in SLA, and research on the expression of emotion in the L2. Throughout the article, I argue against research isolationism and for more interdisciplinarity in the field of instructed SLA. I contend that research on instructed SLA would benefit from an increased methodological and epistemological diversity and that a focus on affect and emotion among researchers might inspire authors of teaching materials and foreign language teachers to pay increased attention to the communication of emotion and the development of sociocultural competence in a L2

Boxing with shadows: contentious politics, culture jamming, and radical creativity in tactical innovation

Dominant theories of tactical innovation in contentious politics suggest that actors innovate in times of crisis or at the margins of familiar forms of action in order to achieve strategic advantage. I argue that these theories do not satisfactorily account for the tactical creativity of a form of contention called culture jamming. Instead, I employ a biographical theory of tactical innovation to explain their distinct repertoire of contention. This theory claims that tactics are partially explained as emanations of or congruent with the life experiences, identities, dispositions, and values of actors. Bourdieu’s field theory allows me to identify a social context generative of an aesthetic disposition, the field of art. It is my contention that a politicized aesthetic disposition is responsible for the observed tactical creativity and innovation of culture jamming. Such a disposition allows for the perception of everyday life objects, discourses, and practices as aesthetic. These common, mundane, even ugly materials are then susceptible to tactical and strategic appropriation. Through an analysis of two culture jamming groups, Critical Art Ensemble and Ubermorgen, I empirically illustrate my application of the biographical theory of innovation

Can indicators fill the gap between science and policy? An exploration of the (non) use and (non) influence of indicators in EU and UK policymaking

This article examines the various roles that indicators, as boundary objects, can play as a science-based evidence for policy processes. It presents two case studies from the EU-funded POINT project that examined the use and influence of two highly different types of indicators: composite indicators of sustainable development at the EU level and energy indicators in the UK. In both cases indicators failed as direct input to policy making, yet they generated various types of conceptual and political use and influence. The composite sustainable development indicators served as “framework indicators”, helping to advocate a specific vision of sustainable development, whereas the energy indicators produced various types of indirect influence, including through the process of indicator elaboration. Our case studies demonstrate the relatively limited importance of the characteristics and quality of indicators in determining the role of indicators, as compared with the crucial importance of “user factors” (characteristics of policy actors) and “policy factors” (policy context)