Do we (need to) care about canopy radiation schemes in DGVMs? Caveats and potential impacts

Dynamic global vegetation models (DGVMs) are an essential part of current state-of-the-art Earth system models. In recent years, the complexity of DGVMs has increased by incorporating new important processes like, e.g., nutrient cycling and land cover dynamics, while biogeophysical processes like surface radiation have not been developed much further. Canopy radiation models are however very important for the estimation of absorption and reflected fluxes and are essential for a proper estimation of surface carbon, energy and water fluxes. The present study provides an overview of current implementations of canopy radiation schemes in a couple of state-of-the-art DGVMs and assesses their accuracy in simulating canopy absorption and reflection for a variety of different surface conditions. Systematic deviations in surface albedo and fractions of absorbed photosynthetic active radiation (faPAR) are identified and potential impacts are assessed. The results show clear deviations for both, absorbed and reflected, surface solar radiation fluxes. FaPAR is typically underestimated, which results in an underestimation of gross primary productivity (GPP) for the investigated cases. The deviation can be as large as 25% in extreme cases. Deviations in surface albedo range between −0.15 ≤ Δα ≤ 0.36, with a slight positive bias on the order of Δα ≈ 0.04. Potential radiative forcing caused by albedo deviations is estimated at −1.25 ≤ RF ≤ −0.8 (W m−2), caused by neglect of the diurnal cycle of surface albedo. The present study is the first one that provides an assessment of canopy RT schemes in different currently used DGVMs together with an assessment of the potential impact of the identified deviations. The paper illustrates that there is a general need to improve the canopy radiation schemes in DGVMs and provides different perspectives for their improvement

A new global fAPAR and LAI dataset derived from optimal albedo estimates: comparison with MODIS products

We present the first comparison between new fAPAR and LAI products derived from the GlobAlbedo dataset and the widely-used MODIS fAPAR and LAI and products. The GlobAlbedo derived products are produced using a 1D two-stream radiative transfer (RT) scheme designed explicitly for global parameter retrieval from albedo, with consistency between RT model assumptions and observations, as well as with typical large-scale land surface model RT schemes. The approach does not require biome-specific structural assumptions (e.g. cover, clumping, understory), unlike more detailed 3D RT model approaches. GlobAlbedo-derived values of fAPAR and LAI are compared with MODIS values over 2002-2011 at multiple flux tower sites within selected biomes, over 1200 × 1200 km regions and globally. GlobAlbedo-derived fAPAR and LAI values are temporally more stable than the MODIS values due to (1) the smoothness of the underlying albedo, derived via optimal estimation (assimilation) using an a priori estimate of albedo derived from an albedo ‘climatology’ (composited multi-year albedo observations) and (2) space-time invariant prior information in the inversion of the two-stream RT scheme. Parameters agree closely in timing but with GlobAlbedo values consistently lower than MODIS, particularly for LAI. Larger differences occur in winter (when values are lower) and in the Southern hemisphere. Globally, we find that: GlobAlbedo-derived fAPAR is ~0.9- 1.01 × MODIS fAPAR with an offset of ~0.03; GlobAlbedo-derived LAI is ~0.6 × MODIS LAI with an offset of ~0.2. Differences arise due to the RT model assumptions underlying the products, meaning care is required in interpreting either set of values, particularly when comparing to finescale ground-based estimates. We present global calibrations between GlobAlbedo-derived and MODIS products.JRC.H.5-Land Resources Managemen

Comparison of boreal ecosystem model sensitivity to variability in climate and forest site parameters

Ecosystem models are useful tools for evaluating environmental controls on carbon and water cycles under past or future conditions. In this paper we compare annual carbon and water fluxes from nine boreal spruce forest ecosystem models in a series of sensitivity simulations. For each comparison, a single climate driver or forest site parameter was altered in a separate sensitivity run. Driver and parameter changes were prescribed principally to be large enough to identify and isolate any major differences in model responses, while also remaining within the range of variability that the boreal forest biome may be exposed to over a time period of several decades. The models simulated plant production, autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration, and evapotranspiration (ET) for a black spruce site in the boreal forest of central Canada (56°N). Results revealed that there were common model responses in gross primary production, plant respiration, and ET fluxes to prescribed changes in air temperature or surface irradiance and to decreased precipitation amounts. The models were also similar in their responses to variations in canopy leaf area, leaf nitrogen content, and surface organic layer thickness. The models had different sensitivities to certain parameters, namely the net primary production response to increased CO2 levels, and the response of soil microbial respiration to precipitation inputs and soil wetness. These differences can be explained by the type (or absence) of photosynthesis-CO2 response curves in the models and by response algorithms of litter and humus decomposition to drying effects in organic soils of the boreal spruce ecosystem. Differences in the couplings of photosynthesis and soil respiration to nitrogen availability may also explain divergent model responses. Sensitivity comparisons imply that past conditions of the ecosystem represented in the models\u27 initial standing wood and soil carbon pools, including historical climate patterns and the time since the last major disturbance, can be as important as potential climatic changes to prediction of the annual ecosystem carbon balance in this boreal spruce forest

Remote sensing phenology at European northern latitudes - From ground spectral towers to satellites

Plant phenology exerts major influences on carbon, water, and energy exchanges between atmosphere and ecosystems, provides feedbacks to climate, and affects ecosystem functioning and services. Great efforts have been spent in studying plant phenology over the past decades, but there are still large uncertainties and disputations in phenology estimation, trends, and its climate sensitivities. This thesis aims to reduce these uncertainties through analyzing ground spectral sampling, developing methods for in situ light sensor calibration, and exploring a new spectral index for reliable retrieval of remote sensing phenology and climate sensitivity estimation at European northern latitudes. The ground spectral towers use light sensors of either nadir or off-nadir viewing to measure reflected radiation, yet how plants in the sensor view contribute differently to the measured signals, and necessary in situ calibrations are often overlooked, leading to great uncertainties in ground spectral sampling of vegetation. It was found that the ground sampling points in the sensor view follow a Cauchy distribution, which is further modulated by the sensor directional response function. We proposed in situ light sensor calibration methods and showed that the user in situ calibration is more reliable than manufacturer’s lab calibration when our proposed calibration procedures are followed. By taking the full advantages of more reliable and standardized reflectance, we proposed a plant phenology vegetation index (PPI), which is derived from a radiative transfer equation and uses red and near infrared reflectance. PPI shows good linearity with canopy green leaf area index, and is correlated with gross primary productivity, better than other vegetation indices in our test. With suppressed snow influences, PPI shows great potentials for retrieving phenology over coniferous-dominated boreal forests. PPI was used to retrieve plant phenology from MODIS nadir BRDF-adjusted reflectance at European northern latitudes for the period 2000-2014. We estimated the trend of start of growing season (SOS), end of growing season (EOS), length of growing season (LOS), and the PPI integral for the time span, and found significant changes in most part of the region, with an average rate of -0.39 days·year-1 in SOS, 0.48 days·year-1 in EOS, 0.87 days·year-1 in LOS, and 0.79%·year-1 in the PPI integral over the past 15 years. We found that the plant phenology was significantly affected by climate in most part of the region, with an average sensitivity to temperature: SOS at -3.43 days·°C-1, EOS at 1.27 days·°C-1, LOS at 3.16 days·°C-1, and PPI integral at 2.29 %·°C-1, and to precipitation: SOS at 0.28 days∙cm-1, EOS at 0.05 days∙cm-1, LOS at 0.04 days∙cm-1, and PPI integral at -0.07%∙cm-1. These phenology variations were significantly related to decadal variations of atmospheric circulations, including the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Arctic Oscillation. The methods developed in this thesis can help to improve the reliability of long-term field spectral measurements and to reduce uncertainties in remote sensing phenology retrieval and climate sensitivity estimation

Quantification of Hydrologic Response to Forest Disturbance in Western U.S. Watersheds

Forested watersheds produce more than half of the water supply in the United States. Forests affect how precipitation is partitioned into available water versus evapotranspiration. This dissertation investigated how water yield and snowpack responded to forest disturbance following recent disturbances in western U.S. forests during the period 2000-2019. Chapter 2 systematically reviewed 78 recent studies that examined how water yield or snowpack changed after forest disturbances. Water yield and snowpack often increased after disturbance, but decreased in some circumstances. Decreased water yield was most likely to occur following disturbances that did not remove the entire forest canopy. It was also more likely to occur in more arid watersheds at lower latitudes, such as in the southwestern U.S., and on south-facing aspects. Chapter 3 examined 159 watersheds across the western U.S. to determine how often and where water yield increased or decreased following forest disturbance. Overall, more severe forest disturbances, particularly in relatively wet watersheds such as in the Northern Rocky Mountains or Pacific Northwest, were more likely to produce larger water yield. However, forest disturbances in very arid watersheds, such as those in the southwestern U.S., were more likely to result in less water yield. Chapter 4 developed a new method for more precisely mapping forest canopies and understory forest vegetation. This method used data collected by the U.S. Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis Program. The maps of separate forest canopy and understory vegetation layers are expected to allow hydrologists to make more accurate predictions regarding the effects of future vegetation changes on water supply. Previous studies that monitored water yield before and after clearcut timber harvests concluded that forest disturbances would lead to increased water yield. In contrast, the work presented here found that disturbances that do not remove the entire canopy (e.g., due to insects, drought, disease, thinning, low-severity wildfire) may lead to different water yield and snowpack responses than disturbances that remove the entire canopy (e.g., clearcut harvesting, severe wildfire). This work has therefore helped us better understand how future water supply, for people and for ecosystems, will be affected by future forest changes

Quantification of Hydrologic Response to Forest Disturbance in Western U.S. Watersheds

Forested watersheds produce more than half of the water supply in the United States. Forests affect how precipitation is partitioned into available water versus evapotranspiration. This dissertation investigated how water yield and snowpack responded to forest disturbance following recent disturbances in western U.S. forests during the period 2000-2019. Chapter 2 systematically reviewed 78 recent studies that examined how water yield or snowpack changed after forest disturbances. Water yield and snowpack often increased after disturbance, but decreased in some circumstances. Decreased water yield was most likely to occur following disturbances that did not remove the entire forest canopy. It was also more likely to occur in more arid watersheds at lower latitudes, such as in the southwestern U.S., and on south-facing aspects. Chapter 3 examined 159 watersheds across the western U.S. to determine how often and where water yield increased or decreased following forest disturbance. Overall, more severe forest disturbances, particularly in relatively wet watersheds such as in the Northern Rocky Mountains or Pacific Northwest, were more likely to produce larger water yield. However, forest disturbances in very arid watersheds, such as those in the southwestern U.S., were more likely to result in less water yield. Chapter 4 developed a new method for more precisely mapping forest canopies and understory forest vegetation. This method used data collected by the U.S. Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis Program. The maps of separate forest canopy and understory vegetation layers are expected to allow hydrologists to make more accurate predictions regarding the effects of future vegetation changes on water supply. Previous studies that monitored water yield before and after clearcut timber harvests concluded that forest disturbances would lead to increased water yield. In contrast, the work presented here found that disturbances that do not remove the entire canopy (e.g., due to insects, drought, disease, thinning, low-severity wildfire) may lead to different water yield and snowpack responses than disturbances that remove the entire canopy (e.g., clearcut harvesting, severe wildfire). This work has therefore helped us better understand how future water supply, for people and for ecosystems, will be affected by future forest changes

Intercomparison of MODIS Albedo Retrievals and In Situ Measurements Across the Global FLUXNET Network

Surface albedo is a key parameter in the Earth's energy balance since it affects the amount of solar radiation directly absorbed at the planet surface. Its variability in time and space can be globally retrieved through the use of remote sensing products. To evaluate and improve the quality of satellite retrievals, careful intercomparisons with in situ measurements of surface albedo are crucial. For this purpose we compared MODIS albedo retrievals with surface measurements taken at 53 FLUXNET sites that met strict conditions of land cover homogeneity. A good agreement between mean yearly values of satellite retrievals and in situ measurements was found (R(exp 2)= 0.82). The mismatch is correlated to the spatial heterogeneity of surface albedo, stressing the relevance of land cover homogeneity when comparing point to pixel data. When the seasonal patterns of MODIS albedo is considered for different plant functional types, the match with surface observation is extremely good at all forest sites. On the contrary, in non-forest sites satellite retrievals underestimate in situ measurements across the seasonal cycle. The mismatch observed at grasslands and croplands sites is likely due to the extreme fragmentation of these landscapes, as confirmed by geostatistical attributes derived from high resolution scenes

Boreal forest albedo and its spatial and temporal variation

Surface albedo refers to the fraction of solar irradiance that is reflected by a surface. Accurate characterisation of the albedo of various land cover types is required for evaluating the energy exchange between the Earth s surface and the atmosphere. The optical and structural properties of a surface determine its albedo. Boreal forest albedo can vary due to factors such as tree species composition, forest structure, understorey vegetation composition, and seasonal changes in vegetation and snow cover. The aim of this study was to characterise typical albedos of Finnish forests dominated by different tree species, evaluate the seasonal variation in forest albedo, and to estimate the effects of structural forest variables and understorey composition on forest albedo or spectral reflectance. To achieve these aims, forest albedo was measured in-situ using pyranometers, estimated from satellite data and calculated using a forest albedo model. Unmixing methods were used to estimate forest albedo from coarse spatial resolution MODIS albedo retrievals and understorey spectral reflectance from Landsat observations. Mature or middle aged pine, spruce and broadleaved deciduous (mainly birch) forests had distinctly different albedos in both summer and winter. Coniferous forest albedo was lower and showed less seasonal variation than albedo in open areas or broadleaved deciduous forests. Albedo of pine was somewhat higher than that of spruce. Snow cover on the ground and canopy increased forest albedo. Young stands with an assumedly high proportion of deciduous species in the under- and overstorey were characterised by a higher albedo than the mature coniferous forests. The high albedo at early succession rapidly decreased as the forest matured. The forest floor was typically covered by green understorey vegetation with rather low albedo, which decreased the influence of a changing canopy cover or leaf area index (LAI) on forest albedo. The spectral reflectances of the understorey varied with site fertility and forest age.Metsän albedoksi kutsutaan sitä osuutta metsään saapuvasta auringonsäteilyn energiasta, joka ei sitoudu metsään vaan heijastuu takaisin taivaalle. Metsän albedon tiedetään vaihtelevan muun muassa puulajin, metsän rakenteen ja lumipeitteen mukaan, mutta näiden vaihtelujen suuruutta ei ole Suomessa tarkemmin arvioitu. Tietoa albedosta tarvitaan kun arvioidaan metsien energiatasetta sekä metsien vaikutusta ilmastoon. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli arvioida kuinka suomalaisten metsien albedo vaihtelee puulajin, metsän rakenteen, aluskasvillisuuden ja vuodenaikojen vaihtelun mukaan. Aineistona käytettiin maastossa tehtyjä albedomittauksia, satelliittimittauksista laskettuja arvoja sekä mallinnusta. Maastossa tehdyistä mittauksista saadut tulokset ovat vain suuntaa-antavia pienen koealamäärän takia. Satelliittikuva-aineistojen tulkinnassa käytettiin apuna malleja, joilla voitiin arvioida heijastusarvoja kuvanalkioita suuremmassa mittakaavassa. Kasvukauden aikainen vaihtelu havumetsien albedossa oli melko pientä, mutta lehtimetsissä albedo oli keväällä ja syksyllä lumettomana aikana hieman matalampi kuin keskikesällä. Lumipeite kasvatti albedoa sekä havu- että lehtimetsissä. Albedo oli kaikkina vuodenaikoina matalin kuusimetsissä, hieman korkeampi mäntymetsissä ja korkein lehtimetsissä. Poikkeuksen muodostivat jaksot, jolloin havumetsien latvus oli lumen peitossa keskitalvella. Saman puulajin keski-ikäisissä tai varttuneissa metsissä lehtiala tai latvuspeittävyys vaikutti lumettoman ajan albedoon vain vähän, mikä saattoi osittain johtua melko matalasta aluskasvillisuuden albedosta. Nuorissa havumetsissä albedo oli suurempi kuin varttuneissa, mikä todennäköisesti johtui nuorten metsien pienemmästä lehtialasta sekä aluskasvillisuuden suuremmasta näkyvyydestä. Aluskasvillisuuden aallonpituudesta riippuva heijastus muuttui metsikön varttuessa ja riippui metsätyypistä