Authenticity examination of the inscription on the ossuary attributed to James, brother of Jesus

Abstract A First Century CE ossuary belonging to a private collector, bearing engraved Aramaic inscription ''Ya'akov bar Yosef achui de Yeshua'' (James son of Joseph his brother of Jesus), has been attributed to James, Jesus' brother, first head of the Jerusalem church. The ossuary was reportedly found around Jerusalem. Previous examination suggested that the ossuary and the inscription were genuine. Our research focuses on the authenticity of the patina that covers the inscription (''letters patina''), based on its petrography and oxygen isotopic composition (d O). We compared the d 18 O values of the letters patina from the James Ossuary, with the patina sampled from the uninscribed surfaces of the same item (''surface patina''), and with surface and letters patinas from legally excavated ossuaries from Jerusalem. In addition, the results were compared with d 18 O values of carbonates formed naturally from groundwater in the Judean Mountains. Our results show that the petrography and the d 18 O values of the letters patina of the James Ossuary differ significantly from the other patinas. The oxygen isotopic composition of the letters patina could not have formed under natural temperature and water oxygen isotope composition that prevailed in Judea during the last 3000 years. The patina was most likely artificially formed from powdered chalk immersed in hot water. These observations clearly call into question the authenticity of the inscription on ''James Ossuary''

Early and mid-holocene environmental conditions in the eastern Adriatic recorded in speleothems from Mala Špilja cave and Velika Špilja cave (Mljet island, Croatia)

This study presents high resolutionoxygen and carbon isotopicrecord of two U-Th dated stalagmites from the EasternAdriatic caves. The stalagmites were collected from Mala špiljaand Velika špilja caves situated on Mljet Island in the southernpart of the Croatian Adriatic. Dripwater samples werecollected from Medvjeđa špilja, Strašna peć, Špilja u Vrdolje,Kraljicina spilja, Velika špilja and Mala špilja caves. All cavesformed in well-stratified Cretaceous limestones. The averagevalue of deuterium excess of the dripwater is 9.3 ‰, indicatingthat the atmospheric conditions over the Atlantic Oceanhave greater influence on the isotopic composition precipitationin the Adriatic region than the Eastern MediterraneanSea. The longest isotopic record of the speleothems is of stalagmiteMSM-1 from Mala špilja Cave dated from 119.2±3.3 ka to 5.6±0.6 ka, although deposition was not continuous.During the Holocene the speleothem grew between 7 kaand 4 ka. That interval is characterized by several δ18Oc andδ13Cc fluctuations reflecting changes in the environment. Superimposedon these fluctuations, there is an increasing trendin the 7.0−6.5 ka interval, evident in elevated δ18O values,which primarily refers the trend to drier conditions in theeastern Adriatic, which were occasionally interrupted by wetintervals. Humid conditions are particularly pronounced bylow δ18Oc and δ13Cc values of speleothem MSM-1 between 7.3and 6 ka, as a reflection of increased precipitation and lower temperatures. The transition to today's Mediterranean climate(Cs) occurred between 6 ka and 5 ka, while the driest conditionsare recorded at ~4.7 − 4.2 ka. Comparisons betweenthe eastern Adriatic δ18Oc and δ13Cc records of the speleothemfrom Mala špilja Cave (MSM-1) and Velika špilja Cave (MljetIsland) with Soreq Cave (Israel) and Corchia Cave (Italy) togetherwith other proxies such as lake sediments demonstratethat the speleothems from the Eastern Adriatic caves recordthe local and the regional climatic changes.Key words: Holocene, speleothem; stable isotopes; EasternAdriatic, Croatia.Rekonstrukcija okoljskih razmer vzgodnjem in poznem Holocenu na podlagi zapisa v sigi jamMala Špilja in Velika Špilja (otok Mljet, Hrvaška)Raziskava temelji na visoko ločljivih zapisih kisikovih in ogljikovihizotopov, pridobljenih iz dveh stalagmitov, datiranih zuran-torijevo metodo. Kapnika sta bila vzorčena v jamah Malašpilja in Velika špilja na otoku Mljet, v južnem delu hrvaškegaJadrana. Vzorčena je bila tudi prenikla voda v jamah Medvjeđašpilja, Strašna peć, Špilja u Vrdolje, Kraljicina spilja, Velikašpilja in Mala špilja. Vse omenjene jame so v plastovitem krednemapnencu. Povprečna vrednost presežka devterija v preniklivodi je 9,3 ‰, kar kaže na prevladujoč podnebni vplivAtlantskega oceana v primerjavi z vplivom vzhodnega Sredozemlja.Najdaljši izotopski zapis smo pridobili iz kapnikaMSM-1 iz Male špilje, katerega starost je med 119,2 ±3,3 ka in5,6±0,6 ka. Za kapnik je značilnih več prekinitev izločanja. Vholocenu je kapnik rastel v obdobju med 7 ka in 4 ka. V temobdobju je več izrazitih nihanj δ18Oc in δ13Cc, kar kaže na spremembeokolja. Med 7,0 in 6,5 ka je v zapisu trend naraščanjaδ18O, kar kaže na relativno suhe razmere v vzhodnem Jadranu,ki so jih občasno prekinila vlažna obdobja. Med 7,3 in6 ka je več obdobij z nizkim vrednostmi δ18Oc in δ13Cc v vzorcuMSM-1, kar kaže na veliko padavin in nizke temperature.Prehod v današnjo sredozemsko klimo (Cs) se je zgodil med6 ka in 5 ka, najbolj suha obdobja smo zabeležili med 4,7 kain 4,2 ka. Primerjava izotopskih zapisov δ18Oc on δ13Cc iz Malešpilje (MSM-1) in Velike špilje (Mljet) z zapisi v jami Soreq (Izrael)in v sistemu Corchia (Italija) ter drugimi kazalci nekdanjihokolij, npr. jezerskimi sedimenti, kažejo, da sige vzhodnega Jadrana hranijo pomembne zapise o lokalnih in regionalnihpodnebnih spremembah.Ključne besede: Holocen, siga, stabilni izotopi, vzhodni Jadran,Hrvaška.

Climatic changes and social transformations in the Near East and North Africa during the ‘long’ 4th millennium BC: A comparative study of environmental and archaeological evidence

This paper explores the possible links between rapid climate change (RCC) and social change in the Near East and surrounding regions (Anatolia, central Syria, southern Israel, Mesopotamia, Cyprus and eastern and central Sahara) during the ‘long’ 4th millennium (∼4500–3000) BC. Twenty terrestrial and 20 marine climate proxies are used to identify long-term trends in humidity involving transitions from humid to arid conditions and vice versa. The frequency distribution of episodes of relative aridity across these records is calculated for the period 6300–2000 BC, so that the results may be interpreted in the context of the established arid episodes associated with RCC around 6200 and 2200 BC (the 8.2 and 4.2 kyr events). We identify two distinct episodes of heightened aridity in the early-mid 4th, and late 4th millennium BC. These episodes cluster strongly at 3600–3700 and 3100–3300 BC. There is also evidence of localised aridity spikes in the 5th and 6th millennia BC. These results are used as context for the interpretation of regional and local archaeological records with a particular focus on case studies from western Syria, the middle Euphrates, southern Israel and Cyprus. Interpretation of the records involves the construction of plausible narratives of human–climate interaction informed by concepts of adaptation and resilience from the literature on contemporary (i.e. 21st century) climate change and adaptation. The results are presented alongside well-documented examples of climatically-influenced societal change in the central and eastern Sahara, where detailed geomorphological studies of ancient environments have been undertaken in tandem with archaeological research. While the narratives for the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean remain somewhat speculative, the use of resilience and adaptation frameworks allows for a more nuanced treatment of human–climate interactions and recognises the diversity and context-specificity of human responses to climatic and environmental change. Our results demonstrate that there is a need for more local environmental data to be collected ‘at source’ during archaeological excavations

Anoxic development of sapropel S1 in the Nile Fan inferred from redox sensitive proxies, Fe speciation, Fe and Mo isotopes

Redox conditions and the mechanisms of redox development are a critical aspect of Eastern Mediterranean sapropels, whose formation in oxygen-depleted waters is closely related to water column stratification at times of global sea level rise and insolation maxima. Sapropels in the Nile Fan formed at relatively shallow water depths under the influence of the monsoon-driven freshwater output from the River Nile. This work evaluates the redox evolution of Holocene sapropel S1 in VALPAMED cruise core MD9509, recovered at 880 mbsl in the NE Nile Fan, using a combination of geochemical element proxies, Fe speciation, Fe and Mo isotopes studies. The productivity and redox proxies (Ba/Al, Mo/Al, U/Al, V/Al, Sb/Al) show well-defined enrichments in the sapropel, but with a marked minimum at ca 8.2 ka indicative of reventilation corresponding to a well known global cooling event. Peak productivity and reducing signals occur close to the initiation of sapropel formation. The proxy signals in sapropel 9509 are stronger and of longer duration than those of a second sapropel S1, recovered at the same depth, but 380 km to the north (MD9501), supporting the notion (suggested in previous studies) of more reduced conditions in the Nile Fan. The MoEF vs. UEF enrichment factor variations in core 9509 infer a transition from open marine suboxic conditions in the enclosing non-sapropel sediments to anoxic non-sulphidic water column conditions in the sapropel. Correspondingly, the highly reactive Fe pool (FeHR) measured in Fe speciation studies is dominated by Fe(oxyhydr) oxide minerals in the background sediments, whereas pyrite (Fepy) becomes the dominant component of the FeHR pool in the sapropel. Maximum Fepy values in the sapropel coincide with peak productivity and reducing conditions, implying a clear link between trace element uptake, diagenetic bacterial sulphate reduction in anoxic porewater and Fe mobilization in the sapropel. Iron isotope compositions (δ56Fe) in the sapropel do not show any departure from primary (marine and detrital) source sediment values, and the absence of an Fe/Al vs. δ56Fe trend strongly argues against an Fe shuttle. Molybdenum isotopes, however, show marked non-conservative fractionation patterns. Background sediment δ98/95Mo values (0.2 to 0.7‰) are compatible with fractionation upon absorptive uptake by Fe (oxyhydr)oxides and pyrite. In contrast, minimum δ98/95Mo values exhibited at peak sapropel (reducing and pyrite producing) conditions are most closely modeled by Mo isotope fractionation during kinetically controlled conversion of aqueous molybdate to thiomolybdate species. The conservative Fe isotope behavior/Mo isotope fractionation minima in the sapropel may be a characteristic of organic-rich sediment diagenesis below an anoxic non-sulphidic water body, without the operation of a benthic Fe shuttle

Evaluating model outputs using integrated global speleothem records of climate change since the last glacial

Although quantitative isotopic data from speleothems has been used to evaluate isotope-enabled model simulations, currently no consensus exists regarding the most appropriate methodology through which to achieve this. A number of modelling groups will be running isotope-enabled palaeoclimate simulations in the framework of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6, so it is timely to evaluate different approaches to use the speleothem data for data-model comparisons. Here, we illustrate this using 456 globally-distributed speleothem δ18O records from an updated version of the Speleothem Isotopes Synthesis and Analysis (SISAL) database and palaeoclimate simulations generated using the ECHAM5-wiso isotope-enabled atmospheric circulation model. We show that the SISAL records reproduce the first-order spatial patterns of isotopic variability in the modern day, strongly supporting the application of this dataset for evaluating model-derived isotope variability into the past. However, the discontinuous nature of many speleothem records complicates procuring large numbers of records if data-model comparisons are made using the traditional approach of comparing anomalies between a control period and a given palaeoclimate experiment. To circumvent this issue, we illustrate techniques through which the absolute isotopic values during any time period could be used for model evaluation. Specifically, we show that speleothem isotope records allow an assessment of a model’s ability to simulate spatial isotopic trends. Our analyses provide a protocol for using speleothem isotopic data for model evaluation, including screening the observations to take into account the impact of speleothem mineralogy on 18O values, the optimum period for the modern observational baseline, and the selection of an appropriate time-window for creating means of the isotope data for palaeo time slices

Sea–land oxygen isotopic relationships from planktonic foraminifera and speleothems in the Eastern Mediterranean region and their implication for paleorainfall during interglacial intervals

The oxygen and carbon stable isotope compositions of cave speleothems provide a powerful method for understanding continental climate change. Here, we examine the question of the regionality of this isotopic record and its linkage with the marine isotopic record in the Eastern Mediterranean (EM) region. The study presents a new, accurately dated 250-kyr δ18O and δ13C record determined from speleothems of the Peqiin Cave, Northern Israel. Its comparison with the continuous 185-kyr isotopic record of the Soreq Cave speleothems from Central Israel reveals striking similarities. Thus, a strong regional climatic signal, brought about by variations in temperature and rainfall amount, is reflected in both cave records. Low δ18O minima in the Peqiin profile for the last 250- to 185-kyr period (interglacial marine isotopic stage 7) match the timing of sapropels 9 to 7 and are indicative of high rainfall in the EM region at these times. The combined Soreq and Peqiin δ18O record for the last 250 kyr excellently matches the published Globigerinoides ruber (G. ruber) marine δ18O record for the EM Sea, with the isotopic compositional difference ΔG.ruber-speleothems remaining relatively constant at −5.6 ± 0.7‰, thus establishing for the first time a robust, exploitable link between the land and the marine isotopic records. The correspondence of low δ18O speleothem values and high cave water stands with low G. ruber δ18O values during interglacial sapropel events indicates that these periods were characterized by enhanced rainfall in the EM land and sea regions. By use of sea surface temperatures derived from alkenone data as a proxy for land temperatures at the Soreq Cave, we calculate the paleorainfall δ18O values and its amounts. Maximum rainfall and lowest temperature conditions occurred at the beginning of the sapropel events and were followed by decrease in rainfall and increase in temperatures, leading to arid conditions. The record for the last 7000 yr shows a trend toward increasing aridity and agrees well with climatic and archeological data from North Africa and the Middle East

Last Glacial warm events on Mount Hermon: the southern extension of the Alpine karst range of the east Mediterranean

This study focuses on warm Last Glacial episodes in the southernmost extension of the Alpine karst range of the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant) region through the study speleothems in Mizpe Shelagim Cave, located in Mt. Hermon. The Alpine karst range extends from Turkey through Syria and Lebanon, reaching its southern limit in Mt. Hermon at an elevation of more than 2000 m. Under present-day conditions, southern Mt. Hermon receives 1000–2000 mm precipitation, mostly as snow, that originates in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Speleothems deposition in this high altitude region was continuous during interglacials, but during the Last Glacial growth occurred when average annual temperatures exceeded ∼3 °C as inferred from the study of speleothem fluid inclusions. Warming episodes occurred at: ∼65 ka, ∼56 ka, 54.5 ka, ∼52.5–51 ka, ∼49 ka, ∼42 ka, and ∼36 ka and are coincident with maximum insolation at 65 °N. The main depositional period from ∼56 ka to 51 ka coincides with Dansgaard–Oeschger interstadial 15 and 14, and warming in the northeastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea. Warming in the southern Alpine karst range of the Eastern Mediterranean was manifested by vegetation development, together with significant snow melting that resulted in the drainage of large amount of water to the Dead Sea Rift Valley

Timing and hydrological conditions of Sapropel events in the Eastern Mediterranean, as evident from speleothems, Soreq cave, Israel

This paper explores the connection between the timing of sapropel events in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and the time of low δ18O events in speleothems of the Soreq cave (Israel). A new well-dated δ18O and δ13C profile of the Soreq cave speleothems for the last 140 kyr reveals five prominent low δ18O events dated at: 124 to 119 kyr, with the main peak at 122 kyr (event #V); 108 to 100 kyr with peaks at 107 and 102 kyr (event #IV); 85 to 79 kyr with peak at 80 kyr (event #III); 55 to 52 kyr with a peak at 54 kyr (event #II) and 8.5 to 7 kyr with peaks at 8.5 and 7 kyr (event #I). These events are characteristic of period of enhanced rainfall in the Eastern Mediterranean area, particularly so for events #V and #I, where the marked decrease in δ18O and the correspondingly marked increase in δ13C indicate very wet conditions. The chronology of the low δ18O events #V, IV, III and #I match the ages estimated for the formation of sapropels S5, S4, S3 and S1 which are also associated with high hydrological activity. Thus, it is suggested that the low δ18O events in the Soreq cave speleothems constrain the maximum duration of the sapropel formation. Pollen data from the sapropel layers and the isotopic pattern of the speleothems indicate that sapropels S5 and S1 were deposited during very wet periods when there were major decrease in the sea surface salinity, coupled with frost-free winters and drought-free summers. Sapropels S4 and S3 were formed during periods of increased precipitation, but ones in which the general climate was Mediterranean semi-arid

Carbon and oxygen isotope study of the active water-carbonate system in a karstic Mediterranean cave: Implications for paleoclimate research in semiarid regions

In a semiarid climatic zone, such as the Eastern Mediterranean region, annual rainfall variations and fractionation processes in the epikarst zone exert a profound influence on the isotopic compositions of waters seeping into a cave. Consequently, the isotopic compositions of speleothems depositing from cave waters may show complex variations that need to be understood if they are to be exploited for paleoclimate studies. This is confirmed by a four-year study of the active carbonate-water system in the Soreq cave (Israel). The δ18O (SMOW) values of cave waters range from −6.3 to −3.5%.. The highest δ18O values occur at the end of the dry season in waters dripping from stalactites, and reflect evaporation processes in the epikarst zone, whereas the lowest values occur in rapidly dripping (fast-drip) waters at the peak of the rainy seasons. However, even fast-drip waters are about 1.5%. heavier than the rainfall above the cave, which is taken to reflect the mixing of fresh with residual evaporated water in the epikarst zone. δ13C (PDB) values of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) vary from −15.6 to −5.4%., with fast-drip waters having lower δ13C values (mostly −15.6 to −12%.) and higher DIC concentrations relative to pool and stalactite-drip water. The low δ13C values of fast-drip waters and their supersaturation with respect to calcium carbonate indicates that the seepage waters have dissolved both soil-CO2 derived from overlying C3-type vegetation and marine dolomite host rock. The δ18O (PDB) values of various types of present-day low-magnesium calcite (LMC) speleothems range from −6.5 to −4.3%. and δ13C values from −13 to −5.5%. and are not correlated with speleothem type. An analysis of δ18O values of present-day calcite rafts and pool waters shows that they form in oxygen isotope equilibrium. Similarly, the measured ranges of δ13C and δ18O values for all types of present-day speleothems are consistent with equilibrium deposition at cave temperatures. The δ13C–δ18O range of contemporary LMC thus reflects the va

Middle-Late Quaternary paleoclimate of northern margins of the Saharan-Arabian Desert: reconstruction from speleothems of Negev Desert, Israel

Speleothems in arid and hyper-arid areas of Negev Desert, Israel, are used in paleoclimate reconstruction of northern margins of Saharan-Arabian Desert, focused on the following objectives: 1) precise U–Th dating of the timing of speleothem growth as an indicator of periods of humid climate, i.e. positive effective precipitation; 2) the origin of rainfall using the speleothem δ18O and changes in spatial pattern of speleothem deposition and speleothem thickness along a north–south transect; 3) changes of vegetation cover based on speleothem δ13C variations. During the last 350 ka major humid periods, referred to herein as Negev Humid Periods (NHP), occurred in the central and southern Negev Desert at 350–310 ka (NHP-4), 310–290 ka (NHP-3), 220–190 ka (NHP-2), and 142–109 ka (NHP-1). NHP-4, NHP-2 and NHP-1 are interglacial events, whereas NHP-3 is associated with a glacial period. During NHP-1, 2 and 3 the thickness and volume of the speleothems decrease from the north to the south, and in the most southern part of the region a very thin flowstone layer formed during NHP-1, with no speleothem deposition occurring during NHP-2 and 3. These data imply that the Eastern Mediterranean Sea was the major source of the rainfall in northern and central Negev. More negative speleothem δ18O values, relative to central parts of Israel (Soreq Cave) are attributed to Rayleigh distillation because of the increasing distance from the Mediterranean Sea. Speleothem deposition during the NHP-4 in the southern Negev was more intensive than in most of the central Negev, suggesting the prominence of the tropical rain source. Decrease in speleothem δ13C during NHP events indicates growth of the vegetation cover. Nevertheless, the ranges of δ13C values show that the vegetation remained semi-desert C4 type throughout the NHPs, with an additional significant carbon fraction coming from the host rock and the atmosphere. These observations, together with small thickness of the speleothem layers, favor that NHP events consisted of clusters o