Gestión de activos en estaciones depuradoras de aguas residuales: una aproximación económica

El ciclo del agua, desde la captación hasta el vertido, es un sector que implica una importante inversión en infraestructuras urbanas. En particular, las estaciones depuradoras de aguas residuales (EDARs) juegan un importante papel en la sociedad, evitan que diversos contaminantes lleguen al medio, favorecen la recarga de acuíferos y garantizan caudales mínimos. Con el fin de llevar a cabo la depuración de las aguas residuales son necesarios un conjunto de tratamientos fisicoquímicos, el grado de tratamiento requerido para el agua residual depende fundamentalmente de los límites de vertido para el efluente. La mayor parte de las instalaciones disponen de un tratamiento de tipo convencional, el cual consta de un pretratamiento, un tratamiento primario y un secundario. A su vez, los distintos procesos mencionados implican el uso de una gran variedad de activos y se pueden agrupar en construcción civil, tuberías y equipamiento electromecánico. En estas últimas décadas el número de EDARs ha aumentado de forma considerable, debido principalmente a las distintas normativas que han ido, paulatinamente, incrementando las exigencias en cuanto a seguridad ambiental. En concreto la Directiva 91/271/CEE supuso la construcción de un gran número de estaciones depuradoras debido a la obligación de que todas las aglomeraciones urbanas con más de 2.000 habitantes equivalentes dispusieran de colectores y plantas de tratamiento. Actualmente la gran mayoría de EDARs supera o está próxima a superar su vida útil y su condición estructural decrece a lo largo del tiempo. El deterioro de la infraestructura implica obtener menores rendimientos y asumir mayor número de fallos, debido principalmente a la fatiga de los materiales. Además, el deterioro que sufren no solo pone en jaque la sostenibilidad presente y futura de las plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales, también incrementa el riesgo de accidente y la probabilidad de sufrir un impacto ambiental derivado. Los operadores públicos y privados, con tal de hacer frente al deterioro y sus consecuencias económicas y ambientales, han mostrado un gran interés en desarrollar programas orientados a los mantenimientos y reparaciones en estas instalaciones. Conocer el impacto económico asociado al envejecimiento permite planificar los reemplazos, así como optimizar los costes de mantenimiento asociados. Por este motivo, en el artículo; “Cost analysis of the facilities deterioration in Wastewater Treatment Plants: A dynamic approach” se desarrolla una función económica que explica los costes de mantenimiento y reparaciones en las EDARs teniendo en cuenta, además de la edad de la planta, sus características técnicas. Entender las consecuencias económicas del deterioro permite abordar la gestión de activos desde una óptica económica, ayudando a los tomadores de decisiones a disminuir la incertidumbre con respecto a la renovación de estas infraestructuras. Una vez modelizado el impacto del deterioro sobre los costes de mantenimiento en las infraestructuras de depuración de aguas residuales, se evalúa la influencia de estos costes en la eficiencia de las EDARs desde un punto de vista económico y ambiental. En el siguiente artículo; “Efficiency of wastewater treatment facilities: The influence of scale economies” se estudia, en primer lugar, los efectos de las economías de escala en el sector y, en segundo, el comportamiento de los costes desagregados que constituyen el proceso de depuración ante su posible influencia. Los resultados constatan que un mayor tamaño de las EDARs (según habitantes equivalentes tratados) supone una reducción global de los costes. Para ello, se identifican las distintas dimensiones que generan estos cambios de eficiencia en las plantas. Además, se señalan aquellos costes con mayor capacidad de mejora, siendo los relativos a la energía usada en el proceso y los mantenimientos realizados. Estos últimos muestran cierta heterogeneidad ya que se observa que las EDARs que tratan menos de 8.000 habitantes equivalentes anuales presentan niveles de eficiencia dispares. Este hecho pone de manifiesto que las políticas orientadas a los mantenimientos preventivos pueden incidir en un menor número de reparaciones y, en consecuencia, ayudaría a reducir los costes generales dedicados a las averías en planta. Finalmente, en el último artículo; “Preventive maintenance versus cost of repairs in asset management: An efficiency analysis in wastewater treatment plants” se analiza la relación entre los mantenimientos preventivos y las reparaciones en las instalaciones de tratamiento de aguas residuales. Este planteamiento resulta novedoso y de gran relevancia por dos motivos, en primer lugar, el cálculo de eficiencia en las instalaciones tendrá en cuenta la minimización de factores que puedan perjudicar al proceso, es decir las roturas y reparaciones que tienen lugar en estas infraestructuras. En este sentido, un mayor coste económico debido a las reparaciones penalizará la eficiencia global de la EDAR analizada. En segundo lugar, obtener un índice de eficiencia asociado a cada entrada y la salida no deseada permite analizar, a posteriori, las implicaciones de las distintas políticas de mantenimiento preventivo llevadas a cabo en las EDARs analizadas. Las conclusiones permiten establecer los niveles de costes dedicados a los mantenimientos preventivos que minimizan las averías y, además, sugieren unos costes óptimos a partir de las EDARs que mayores eficiencias ofrecen al respecto.The urban water cycle, from water collection to discharge, is a process that requires significant investment in urban infrastructure. In particular, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play an important role in society, minimizing the environmental impact of wastewater, favouring the recharge of aquifers, and guaranteeing minimum flow rates. To carry out the purification of the wastewater, a set of physicochemical treatments are necessary, whose pollutants removal will depend fundamentally on the discharge limits of the receiving environment. Most of the facilities have a conventional treatment, which consists of a pretreatment, a primary and a secondary treatment. In turn, the different processes mentioned involve the use of a great variety of assets and can be grouped into civil construction, pipes and electromechanical equipment. In recent decades, the number of WWTPs has increased considerably, mainly due to different regulations that have gradually increased the demands in terms of environmental safety. Specifically, Directive 91/271 / EEC involved the construction of a large number of WWTPs due to the obligation for all urban agglomerations with more than 2,000 equivalent inhabitants to have collectors and treatment plants. Currently, the vast majority of WWTPs exceed or are close to exceeding their useful life and their structural condition decreases over time. The deterioration of the infrastructure implies obtaining lower yields and assuming a greater number of failures, mainly due to the fatigue of the materials. Furthermore, the deterioration they suffer not only jeopardizes the present and future sustainability of the wastewater treatment plants, but also increases the risk of accident and the probability of suffering a derived environmental impact. In order to face deterioration and its economic and environmental consequences, public and private operators have shown great interest in developing programs aimed at the maintenance and repairs of these facilities. Being aware of the economic impact associated with aging makes it possible to plan replacements, as well as to optimize the associated maintenance costs. For this reason, in the article “Cost analysis of the facilities deterioration in Wastewater Treatment Plants: A dynamic approach” an economic function that explains the maintenance and repair costs in WWTPs is developed taking into account the age of the facility and its technical characteristics. Understanding the economic consequences of deterioration makes it possible to approach asset management from an economic perspective, helping decision makers to reduce uncertainty regarding the renovation of these infrastructures. Once the impact of the deterioration on the maintenance costs of the wastewater treatment infrastructures has been modeled, the influence of these costs on the efficiency of the WWTPs is evaluated from an economic and environmental point of view. In the article “Efficiency of wastewater treatment facilities: The influence of scale economies” firstly, the effects of economies of scale in the sector and, secondly, the behavior of the disaggregated costs that constitute the purification process before its possible influence are studied. The results confirm that a larger WWTPs (according to equivalent inhabitants treated) implies a reduction of their costs. For this, the different dimensions that generate these efficiency variations among the facilities are identified. In addition, those costs that could be reduced have been identified, being those related to the energy used in the process and the maintenance. The latter show certain heterogeneity since it is observed that the WWTPs that treat less than 8,000 equivalent inhabitants per year present different levels of efficiency. This fact shows that policies aimed at preventive maintenance can have a lower number of repairs and, consequently, would help to reduce the costs for plant breakdowns. Finally, the last article, "Preventive maintenance versus cost of repairs in asset management: An efficiency analysis in wastewater treatment plants", analyzes the relationship between preventive maintenance and repairs in wastewater treatment facilities. This approach is novel and highly relevant for two reasons. Firstly, the efficiency calculation in the facilities will consider the minimization of factors that may harm the process, that is, the breakages and repairs that take place in these infrastructures. In this sense, a higher economic cost due to repairs will penalize the overall efficiency of the WWTP analyzed. Secondly, obtaining an efficiency index associated with each unwanted input and output makes it possible to analyze, afterwards, the implications of different preventive maintenance policies carried out in the WWTPs analyzed. The conclusions make it possible to establish the levels of costs dedicated to preventive maintenance that minimize breakdowns and, furthermore, suggest the optimal costs that WWTPs should incur taking into account the information of those WWTPs that offer greater efficiencies in this regard

Industrial Symbiosis: A Mechanism to Guarantee the Implementation of Circular Economy Practices

There is a growing concern regarding the scarcity of natural resources. The levels of resource exploitation generated by the current system of production and consumption has led the European Commission to develop a set of guidelines that aim to reduce the pressure on natural resources. The set of guidelines proposed by the European Union is based on the transformation of the current linear economic system into a circular system in which resources and materials remain in the production system for longer. However, for this change to take effect, practical measures are required. This paper presents an industrial symbiosis approach as a practical application of a circular economy model. The aim of this paper is to develop a guide to successfully implement an industrial symbiosis network, demonstrating that industrial symbiosis can achieve the goals of a circular economy. To demonstrate this, an example of its implementation is provided in a region of Spain, which is responsible for producing approximately 95% of the total ceramics products in the nation. This study emphasises the set of barriers that need to be addressed in order to make new models a reality for business and consumers, society, and the environment

Differences in the use of Twitter between candidates and candidates for the regional elections of the Valencian Community in 2019

Treball Final de Màster Universitari en Noves Tendències i Processos d'Innovació en Comunicació. Codi: SBP052. Curs: 2018/2019Las redes sociales son el medio de interacción por excelencia en Internet. Su sencillez de uso y su gratuidad han provocado que millones de usuarios puedan estar interconectados y que su crecimiento sea exponencial. Asimismo, se pueden utilizar para intereses personales o profesionales, como construir una imagen de marca o hacer llegar los productos o servicios de una empresa a un público objetivo que con la publicidad convencional sería más costoso de alcanzar. En este sentido, este trabajo se adentra en el estudio del género y el uso de una de las redes sociales, Twitter, de un grupo de la sociedad que lo utiliza para vender ideología y alcanzar el poder, es decir, los políticos. Y es que las redes sociales les permiten a los políticos mejorar el conocimiento de los ciudadanos y acercarse a ellos de forma directa sin periodistas. Además, suponen una comunicación bidireccional con los seguidores y sirven para potenciar y gestionar la imagen pública del usuario de una forma menos costosa que la publicidad tradicional. Por otra parte, hay que tener en cuenta que el uso de las redes sociales se realiza por parte de hombres y mujeres por lo que el género es un elemento importante a tener en cuenta en las investigaciones sobre la utilización de las redes sociales con la finalidad de diferenciar comportamientos en la utilización de las mismas. Hay que destacar que Twitter es una red social abierta que permite hacer publicaciones en tiempo real de valor para los simpatizantes y un canal perfecto para difundir el ideario de una campaña política o de los actos que realizan para convertir a los seguidores simpatizantes en potenciales votantes. Mediante la técnica del análisis de contenido cuantitativo, esta investigación analiza los tuits de creación propia realizados por los hombres y las mujeres candidatos a las recientes elecciones autonómicas del abril de 2019 en Comunitat Valenciana con el objetivo de averiguar si el género de los políticos influye o es un elemento que interviene en el uso de la red social abierta Twitter. Entre los resultados encontrados, se observa que los candidatos de izquierda realizan más tuits que las candidatas de la misma ideología.Social networks are the means of interaction par excellence on the Internet. Its simplicity of use and its gratuity have caused millions of users to be interconnected and that their growth is exponential. They can also be used for personal or professional interests, such as building a brand image or delivering the products or services of a company to a target audience that with conventional advertising would be more expensive to achieve. In this sense, this work goes into the study of gender and the use of one of the social networks, Twitter, of a group of society that uses it to sell ideology and achieve power, that is, politicians. And it is that social networks allow them to improve the knowledge of citizens and approach them directly without journalists. In addition, they involve two-way communication with followers and serve to enhance and manage the user's public image in a less expensive way than traditional advertising. On the other hand, it should be borne in mind that the use of social networks is carried out by men and women, so gender is an important element to take into account in research on the use of social networks for the purpose to differentiate behaviors in the use of them. It should be noted that Twitter is an open social network that allows real-time publications of value to supporters and a perfect channel to disseminate the ideology of a political campaign or the acts they perform to convert supporters into potential voters. Using the quantitative content analysis technique, this research analyzes the own creation tweets made by the men and women candidates for the recent regional elections of April 2019 in the Valencian Community with the aim of finding out whether the gender of politicians influences or It is an element that intervenes in the use of the open social network Twitter. Among the results found, it is observed that leftist candidates make more tweets than candidates of the same ideology

A Tariff Model for Reclaimed Water in Industrial Sectors: An Opportunity from the Circular Economy

The growth of the world’s population is associated with an increase in demand for water. The consequences of this increase are twofold: On the one hand, it endangers the water balance of the ecosystem, and on the other hand, it considerably increases the volume of wastewater generated. In this sense, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play a fundamental role since their objective is to guarantee the quality of the effluents discharged into the environment. Moreover, current treatment systems allow for the subsequent use of the effluent. Thus, the wastewater treatment sector can be seen as an unconventional source of water, acquiring a special importance in the framework of the circular economy. In this context, water reclamation and reuse are identified as key components of water resource management. However, the economic aspects, in terms of tariff design and cost recovery, represent a major barrier to incentivizing its use. In this paper, the authors analyze these aspects and propose a tariff that combines the cost recovery, an incentive to use reclaimed water and other relevant aspects that guarantee the success of water reuse projects. With this objective, three industrial sectors are evaluated. For the first sector, the user industries would achieve a saving of approximately 10% by changing the consumption of conventional water to reclaimed water; in the second sector, they would achieve a saving of 18% and in the third sector a saving of approximately 16%. In addition to guaranteeing sustainability in the consumption of reclaimed water in industry, the viability of the supplying company is ensured. This research offers valuable results that will be useful for establishing future strategies aimed at encouraging the use of reclaimed water in industrial environments

The Quantification of Non-Action Costs as an Incentive to Address Water Pollution Problems

Diffuse pollution is one type of pollution generated by agricultural, livestock, and urban runoff that is responsible for surface and groundwater pollution. As a result, the exposed population develops different diseases that affect their short, medium, and long-term quality of life. Researchers need to be able to assess the loss of quality of life in monetary terms to include this social impact in decision-making processes. Specifically, if no measure is implemented to correct the situation, these costs can be considered as the non-action costs of the social impact of water pollution. This study assesses the importance of measuring healthcare costs as a proxy for non-action costs for the economic assessment of water pollution consequences. Thanks to this analysis, it is possible to identify the health costs produced by the current environmental situation, making it possible to obtain an economic baseline scenario prior to the implementation of any project or measure. This approach is a novelty in the literature since, to date, healthcare costs have not been related to non-action costs. Including these costs in economic feasibility studies allow us to assess in detail both the social impact of pollution and the social benefits of develop water-quality improvement projects

The Potential of Digitalization to Promote a Circular Economy in the Water Sector

The current amount of data coming from all kinds of devices together with the incessant increase in computing capacity is revolutionizing almost all existing sectors, and the water sector is no exception. The monitoring of urban water cycle infrastructures makes it possible to generate a large amount of data, this information, previously processed, helps to increase the efficiency of the processes carried out in these infrastructures, from catchment to purification and subsequent discharge. This information, in addition to improving internal aspects such as the operation and maintenance of the infrastructures, allows them to be linked to multiple other variables in other sectors, making new technological approaches and more effective management strategies possible. A practical example is wastewater treatment plants. From the perspective of the circular economy, these infrastructures are capable of producing a large amount of resources, which, if properly managed, can reduce the pressure on conventional resources. In this sense, digitization allows the integration of the different market players, thus optimizing the supply and demand of these resources and ultimately advancing the practical application of the circular economy. This paper reviews the potential of digitalization in the urban water sector and proposes numerous practical examples to accelerate the transition towards economic, social, and environmental sustainability

Industrial Symbiosis: A Mechanism to Guarantee the Implementation of Circular Economy Practices

There is a growing concern regarding the scarcity of natural resources. The levels of resource exploitation generated by the current system of production and consumption has led the European Commission to develop a set of guidelines that aim to reduce the pressure on natural resources. The set of guidelines proposed by the European Union is based on the transformation of the current linear economic system into a circular system in which resources and materials remain in the production system for longer. However, for this change to take effect, practical measures are required. This paper presents an industrial symbiosis approach as a practical application of a circular economy model. The aim of this paper is to develop a guide to successfully implement an industrial symbiosis network, demonstrating that industrial symbiosis can achieve the goals of a circular economy. To demonstrate this, an example of its implementation is provided in a region of Spain, which is responsible for producing approximately 95% of the total ceramics products in the nation. This study emphasises the set of barriers that need to be addressed in order to make new models a reality for business and consumers, society, and the environment

The Potential of Digitalization to Promote a Circular Economy in the Water Sector

The current amount of data coming from all kinds of devices together with the incessant increase in computing capacity is revolutionizing almost all existing sectors, and the water sector is no exception. The monitoring of urban water cycle infrastructures makes it possible to generate a large amount of data, this information, previously processed, helps to increase the efficiency of the processes carried out in these infrastructures, from catchment to purification and subsequent discharge. This information, in addition to improving internal aspects such as the operation and maintenance of the infrastructures, allows them to be linked to multiple other variables in other sectors, making new technological approaches and more effective management strategies possible. A practical example is wastewater treatment plants. From the perspective of the circular economy, these infrastructures are capable of producing a large amount of resources, which, if properly managed, can reduce the pressure on conventional resources. In this sense, digitization allows the integration of the different market players, thus optimizing the supply and demand of these resources and ultimately advancing the practical application of the circular economy. This paper reviews the potential of digitalization in the urban water sector and proposes numerous practical examples to accelerate the transition towards economic, social, and environmental sustainability

Circular economy and efficiency to ensure the sustainability in the wastewater treatment plants

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) represent a great opportunity within the framework of the circular economy. Not only are WWTPs an alternative source of water, but they can provide other valuable resources for other sectors such as water and energy. For instance, the nutrients contained in wastewater are of great importance for agriculture, since they can be used as fertilizers. In this sense, evaluating the efficiency of wastewater treatment processes makes it possible to identify those aspects that improve the performance of these infrastructures, thus ensuring their long-term sustainability. Most of the previous studies evaluate the efficiency based on the resources used and the total pollutant removal, this aspect does not consider that the quantity of pollutants that WWTPs are obliged to remove depend on the characteristics of the discharge location. To address this, an advanced efficiency model is applied to differentiate between the amount of pollutants that the Directive 91/271/EEC oblige to remove and the extra quantity of pollutants that WWTPs remove beyond the legal requirements. The results show that most of the facilities are able to remove a higher quantity of pollutants and, consequently, generate more resources for the society. The methodology and results of this study are of great interest to WWTP managers and administrations, encouraging the implementation of design-based solutions to maximize by-product collection in the wastewater treatment sector and improve the efficiency of these facilities