Teaching and Learning English in Bilingual Education

Since its beginning some twenty years ago bilingual education programs for minority language (ML) students in the U.S. have been the subject of heated debate. The most controversial feature of these programs has been their use of non-English languages for a substantial part of curriculum instruction. On the one side are those who argue in favor of such a practice for theoretical, logical and social reasons (Chavez, 1984; Cummins, 1981). On the other side are those who argue against it, largely on ideological and economic grounds (Bethel, 1979; Edwards, 1981). The debate has been longstanding and far-reaching, drawing in academics, researchers, public policy makers, government officials, media editorialists and even "the common man and woman in the street". It is far from being resolved. At the same time, there would appear to be a general consensus concerning the other side of the bilingual education coin; that is to say, the English side. Even the most ardent supporters of native language instruction for ML students recognize the primary importance of English language proficiency for these students: "for minority language children in the United States, strong English proficiency in all domains is essential." (Chavez, 1984, p. 171). In this paper I will address the issue of teaching and learning English in bilingual education programs for ML students drawing on my experiences with Canadian immersion programs

Bilingual First Language Acquisition: Evidence from Montreal

Bilingual code-mixing is the use of elements (phonological, lexical, and morpho-syntactic) from two languages in the same utterance or stretch of conversation or in different situations. Bilingual code-mixing is ubiquitous among bilinguals, both child and adult. Child bilingual code-mixing has been interpreted by researchers and laypersons as an indication of linguistic confusion and incompetence. This article reviews a series of studies on French-English simultaneous bilinguals from Montreal that examined their code-mixing with respect to young bilingual children’s ability: to differentiate their developing languages, to control code-mixing in different communicative situations, to adjust their code-mixing in response to feedback from interlocutors, and to fill gaps in their developing language competence. Contrary those who view child code-mixing as evidence of confusion and incompetence, extant evidence indicates that it reflects linguistic and communicative competence even in very early stages of simultaneous bilingual acquisition.L’alternance de codes (ou « code-mixing ») chez les personnes bilingues est l’utilisation d’éléments (phonologiques, lexicaux et morpho-syntaxiques) provenant de deux langues dans le même énoncé, dans la même partie de conversation ou dans différentes situations. L’alternance de codes est un phénomène omniprésent chez les enfants et les adultes bilingues. Ce phénomène a été interprété par les chercheurs et la population générale comme une indication de confusion et d’incompétence linguistique chez les enfants bilingues. Cet article présente plusieurs études portant sur ce phénomène auprès d’enfants bilingues de Montréal ayant appris le français et l’anglais simultanément. Les aspects suivants furent examinés : leur capacité à différencier les langues qu’ils acquièrent, à changer de langue dans différentes situations de communication, à changer de langue pour répondre aux réactions des interlocuteurs ou pour compenser les limites de leurs habiletés langagières en développement. Contrairement à la pensée voulant que l’alternance de codes soit une preuve de confusion et d’incompétence, plusieurs preuves suggèrent que ce phénomène reflète plutôt des compétences linguistiques et de communication, et ce, même dans les étapes très précoces de l’acquisition simultanée de deux langues

French immersion and at-risk students: A review of research evidence

Abstract: This report reviews results of research on the outcomes of French immersion students with special educational needs related to low levels of general academic ability and low levels of first language ability (and possibly impairment), as well as those of students with difficulty or who are at risk for difficulty in learning to read. Studies of the effectiveness of interventions for such students are also reviewed and analyzed. The report ends with suggestions for future research and educational policy. Keywords: immersion; literacy; second language reading Résumé : On trouvera dans le présent rapport les conclusions des recherches sur les résultats obtenus par les élèves d'immersion française ayant des besoins éducatifs spéciaux et des aptitudes restreintes dans leur première langue (voire une déficience), ainsi que les résultats des élèves ayant des difficultés à apprendre à lire ou bien à risque dans ce domaine. Des études sur l'efficacité des interventions auprès de ces types d'étudiants sont aussi examinées et analysées. Le rapport se termine par des suggestions de recherches et de politiques éducatives pour l'avenir

Neuropsychological approaches to bilingualism: A critical review

Literature review and conceptual framework.Clinical and experimental studies which have examined the neuropsychological bases of language processing in bilinguals are reviewed and evaluated. Evidence from case studies of polyglot aphasics suggests that the neuropsychological organization of their languages is the same for most bilinguals but that cases of dissociation do occur. Two main factors — language specific and language acquisitional — which might account for dissociation are defined and empirical evidence relevant to each is considered. It is argued that while clinical case studies of bilinguals suffering language disruption following brain damage have been significant in isolating these factors, they have failed to establish their explanatory power, due in part to inadequate data bases and in part to weak hypothesis-testing procedures.A review of the experimental studies provides preliminary evidence that such factors may influence the pattern of hemispheric involvement in the language processing of bilinguals.The variables of age, stage and manner of second language acquisition are discussed in some detail. A theoretical framework integrating the available evidence is proposed and guidelines for further research are suggested

Phonological Development in the Early Speech of an Indonesian-German Bilingual Child

Current research in bilingual children’s language development with one language dominant has shown that one linguistic system can affect the other. This is called Crosslinguistic Influence (CLI). This paper explores whether CLI is experienced by a bilingual child raised in two typologically distinct languages in terms of phonological development. It uses data from the study of a child simultaneously acquiring Indonesian and German between the ages of 12 months - 20 months, with Indonesian as the dominant language. The sound segments developed by the child showed universal tendencies, with the appearance of bilabials prior to alveolar sounds, followed by velar sounds. The sounds were produced mostly in the form of stops, nasals and glides. Three phonological processes were displayed by the child: substitution, assimilation and syllable structures. The front rounded vowel [ʏ], which exists in German but not in the Indonesian sound system, was systematically replaced by the palatal approximant [j]. This approximant exists in the Indonesian sound system but not in the German phonemic inventory. This provides evidence that, in terms of phonological development, the child experienced CLI, but only for certain sound transfers

Toward a model of multiple paths to language learning: response to commentaries

Language learning, while seemingly effortless for young learners, is a complex process involving many interacting pieces, both within the child and in their language-learning environments, which can result in unique language learning trajectories and outcomes. How does the brain adjust to or accommodate the myriad variations that occur during this developmental process. How does it adapt and change over time? In our review, we proposed that the timing, quantity, and quality of children's early language experiences, particularly during an early sensitive period for the acquisition of phonology, shape the establishment of neural phonological representations that are used to establish and support phonological working memory (PWM). The efficiency of the PWM system in turn, we argued, influences the acquisition and processing of more complex aspects of language. In brief, we proposed that experience modulates later language outcomes through its early effects on PWM. We supported this claim by reviewing research from several unique groups of language learners who experience delayed exposure to language (children with cochlear implants [CI] or internationally adopted [IA] children, and children with either impoverished [signing deaf children with hearing parents)] or enriched [bilingual] early language experiences). By comparing PWM and language outcomes in these groups, we sought to highlight general patterns in language development that emerge based on variation in early language exposure. Moving forward, we also proposed that the language acquisition patterns in these groups, and others, can be used to understand how variability in early language input might affect the neural systems supporting language development and how this might affect language learning itself

Bilingualism and conversational understanding in young children

The purpose of the two experiments reported here was to investigate whether bilingualism confers an advantage on children’s conversational understanding. A total of 163 children aged 3 to 6 years were given a Conversational Violations Test to determine their ability to identify responses to questions as violations of Gricean maxims of conversation (to be informative and avoid redundancy, speak the truth, and be relevant and polite). Though comparatively delayed in their L2 vocabulary, children who were bilingual in Italian and Slovenian (with Slovenian as the dominant language) generally outperformed those who were either monolingual in Italian or Slovenian. We suggest that bilingualism can be accompanied by an enhanced ability to appreciate effective communicative responses

Similar and distinct neural mechanisms underlying semantic priming in the languages of the French–Spanish bilingual children

Recent evidence demonstrates that lexical-semantic connections emerge over the second year of life for monolingual children. Yet, little is known about the developing lexical-semantic organization of children acquiring two languages simultaneously. Two- to 4 year-old French–Spanish bilingual children completed a within-language auditory semantic priming task in both of their languages, while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. The results revealed that bilingual children exhibited sensitivity to taxonomic relationships between words in each of their languages, but the pattern of brain activity varied across the dominant (DL) and the non-dominant (NDL) languages. While the N2 occurred for both languages, the N400 appeared for target words in the DL only and the late anterior negativity for target words in the NDL only. These findings indicate that words are organized taxonomically in the bilinguals’ lexicons. However, the patterns of brain activity suggest that common and distinct neural resources underlie lexical-semantic processing in each language

Morphosyntactic knowledge of clitics by Portuguese heritage bilinguals

FirstView ArticleThis paper focuses on the linguistic competence of adult Portuguese–German bilinguals in their heritage language, European Portuguese (EP), which they acquired at home in early childhood in the context of German as the majority language. Based on a grammaticality judgment test, we investigate their morphosyntactic knowledge of clitics. The central questions are whether possible deviations from native monolinguals may be traced back to a) lack of contact with the formal register; b) reduced input after preschool age; and c) cross-linguistic influence. The results reveal qualitative differences between the heritage speakers and a group of monolingual controls in almost all test conditions. We conclude that although the linguistic knowledge of the heritage bilinguals investigated in this study differs from that of monolinguals, it is not “deficient” but “different” and “innovative”, because it is primarily based on the spoken variety of the language and because it promotes linguistic changes which are inherent in the speech of native monolinguals.Ações Luso-Alemãs (DAAD-CRUP); referências 50097448 e A-18/10 AI-A/09