Design and Performance of Microlith Implemented Projectiles During the Middle and the Late Epipaleolithic of the Levant: Experimental and Archaeological Evidence

The study comprises an experimentally based investigation of interaction between temporal change in the morphology of microlithic tools and transformations in projectile technology during the Late Pleistocene in the Levant. Archery experiments with differently designed arrows fitted with various types of microliths representing subsequent Epipaleolithic cultures of the Levant allowed analyzing performance abilities of the arrows, identifying projectile damage types characteristic of particular hafting modes, detecting factors influencing the frequency of projectile damage and estimating the frequency of projectile damage expected to be found in archaeological samples. The data obtained through the experiments applied in the analysis of the archaeological microliths from Geometric Kebaran and Natufian sites in Israel indicate different approaches to the design of projectiles fitted with microliths characteristic for these cultures. The shift in design, associated with such important economic and social transformations as transition to sedentary settlements and a broad-spectrum economy, may reflect a demand for light, flexible and efficient projectile weapons requiring low time and labor investment for preparation and retooling. The use of such efficient weapons in conditions of growing population density and restricted areas available for Natufian hunter–gatherers can be considered as one of the factors that could have affected the subsequent transition to food production that took place in the early Holocene.Anthropolog

The function of Early Natufian grooved basalt artefacts from el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel: Preliminary results of a use-wear analysis

[Report]Grooved items are usually regarded as tools used for modifying other implements made of bone, stone, plants or wood, whether referred to as shaft straighteners, smoothers, polishers or sharpening tools. They were also attributed to various symbolic meanings in Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in the southern Levant and they were also associated with bead manufacturing process in the Neolithic. Grooved basalts found on Early Natufian (ca. 14,000 BP) living floors at el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel, were the subject of microscopic use-wear analysis. Here we present the preliminary results of the research, introducing our functional reconstruction based on experiments. The most outstanding result is that traces on the perimeters, attributed to shaping of the artefact, are different from the traces inside the groove which are related to the use of the artefact. We conclude that the groove is a part of the instrument, shaped before its use in order to work the abraded materials. Traces indicate that the shaping of the perimeters was done by abrasion against a very hard rock, probably using water to enhance the smoothing of the stone. Traces inside the groove indicate, as was previously assumed for these artefacts, that the groove was used as a shaft straightener. However, traces also indicate that the groove was used to abrade different types of materials which might not be related to the preparation of shafts including reeds, wood, and especially minerals such as ochre. Our preliminary results indicate the multi-functional nature of these items shedding light on their production, use and discard history

Hominin reactions to herbivore distribution in the Lower Palaeolithic of the Southern Levant

We explore the relationship between the edaphic potential of soils and the mineral properties of the underlying geology as a means of mapping the differential productivity of different areas of the Pleistocene landscape for large herbivores. These factors strongly control the health of grazing animals irrespective of the particular types of vegetation growing on them, but they have generally been neglected in palaeoanthropological studies in favour of a more general emphasis on water and vegetation, which provide an incomplete picture. Taking the Carmel-Galilee-Golan region as an example, we show how an understanding of edaphic potential provides insight into how animals might have exploited the environment. In order to simplify the analysis, we concentrate on the Lower Palaeolithic period and the very large animals that dominate the archaeofaunal assemblages of this period. Topography and the ability of soils to retain water also contribute to the differential productivity and accessibility of different regions and to patterns of seasonal movements of the animals, which are essential to ensure a supply of healthy fodder throughout the year, especially for large animals such as elephants, which require substantial regions of good grazing and browsing. Other animals migrating in groups have similar needs. The complex topography of the Southern Levant with frequent sudden and severe changes in gradient, and a wide variety of landforms including rocky outcrops, cliffs, gorges, and ridges, places major limits on these patterns of seasonal movements. We develop methods of mapping these variables, based on the geology and our substantial field experience, in order to create a framework of landscape variation that can be compared with the locations and contents of archaeological sites to suggest ways in which early hominins used the variable features of the landscape to target animal prey, and we extend the analysis to the consideration of smaller mammals that were exploited more intensively after the disappearance of the elephants. We consider some of the ways in which this regional-scale approach can be further tested and refined, and advocate the development of such studies as an essential contribution to understanding the wider pattern of hominin dispersal

Moving forwards? Palynology and the human dimension

For the greater part of the last century, anthropogenic palynology has made a sustained contribution to archaeology and to Quaternary science in general, and pollen-analytical papers have appeared in Journal of Archaeological Science since its inception. The present paper focuses selectively upon three areas of anthropogenic palynology, enabling some assessment as to whether the field is advancing: land-use studies, archaeological site study, and modelling. The Discussion also highlights related areas including palynomorph identification and associated proxies. There is little doubt that anthropogenic palynology has contributed to the vitality of pollen analysis in general, and although published research can be replicative or incremental, site- and landscape-based studies offer fresh data for further analysis and modelling. The latter allows the testing of both palynological concepts and inferences and can inform archaeological discovery and imagination. Archaeological site studies are often difficult, but palynology can still offer much to the understanding of occupation sites and the discernment of human behaviour patterns within sites

Ochre, ground stone and wrapping the dead in the Late Epipalaeolithic (Natufian) Levant: revealing the funerary practices at Shubayqa 1, Jordan

The appearance of rich and diverse funerary practices is one of the hallmarks of the Late Epipalaeolithic Natufian in the Levant. Numerous burials at a number of sites excavated mostly in the Mediterranean zone of the southern Levant have fed into the interpretation of the Natufian as a sedentary society of complex hunter-gatherers. Here, we report on the human remains recovered from Shubayqa 1, a well-dated early to late Natufian site in northeast Jordan. The majority of the minimum of 23 individuals that are represented are perinates and infants, which represents an atypical population profile. Ground stone artifacts and traces of colourants are associated with some of these individuals, providing a rare insight into funerary treatment of subadults in Natufian contexts. We interpret the Shubayqa 1 evidence in the light of current and ongoing debates concerning Natufian burial practices and the issue of social complexity

The Paleoecology of the Early Wurm in the Hula Basin, Israel

A palynological study of a Late Pleistocene sequence in the Hula Basin yielded 15 palynological zones. The first five, with low AP levels, were correlated with the greater part of the last interglacial. The later, with high AP levels, revealed two main humid fluctuations, and were correlated with the early phases of the last glacial, up to approximately 45 000 YBP. The very humid conditions at the beginning of the last glacial may explain the erosional phase between Lower and Upper Mousterian layers in the caves of northern Israel.Une étude palynologique de la séquence du Pléistocène récent conduite dans le bassin du Houleh a révélé 15 « zones palynologiques ». Les cinq premières — aux niveaux AP bas — peuvent être mises en relation avec la presque totalité de la dernière interglaciation. Les dix autres — aux niveaux AP élevés — ont permis de mettre en évidence deux principales fluctuations humides; celles-ci ont pu être mises en relation avec les premières phases de la dernière période glaciaire qui s'étend jusque vers 45 000 BP. Les conditions de très grande humidité lors du début de la dernière glaciation pourraient expliquer la phase d'érosion que l'on constate dans les grottes du nord d'Israël entre les couches du Moustérien inférieur et supérieur.Weinstein-Evron Mina. The Paleoecology of the Early Wurm in the Hula Basin, Israel. In: Paléorient, 1983, vol. 9, n°1. pp. 5-19

New Radiocarbon dates for the Early Natufian of El-Wad Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel

Three new radiocarbon dates for the Early Natufian have been obtained from the cave of el-Wad. The dates, ranging between 12,950 and 10,680 BP represent the oldest and longest Early Natufian sequence in northern Israel. These determinations indicate that the origins of the Natufian are to be found in the Geometric Kebaran of Mt. Carmel and the Galilee.Trois nouvelles datations С14 ont été obtenues pour le Natoufien ancien de la grotte d'el-Wad. Les dates qui s'échelonnent entre 12.950 et 10.680 BP, représentent la séquence la plus ancienne et la plus longue pour le Natoufien ancien du nord d'Israël. Ces déterminations indiquent que les origines du Natoufien doivent se trouver dans le Kébarien Géométrique du Mont Carmel et de la Galilée.Weinstein-Evron Mina. New Radiocarbon dates for the Early Natufian of El-Wad Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel. In: Paléorient, 1991, vol. 17, n°1. pp. 95-98

The Acheulo-Yabrudian – Early Middle Paleolithic Sequence of Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel

Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel was occupied between 250 and 160 ka. During this time the site was inhabited by bearers of the Acheulo-Yabrudian and Early Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian ) techno-complexes. The Acheulo-Yabrudian industry is characterized by production of thick and wide flakes and shows no evidence of laminar or Levallois methods. The varied assemblage encompasses true bifaces, artifacts fully worked on one face and only partially on the other, unifaces and scrapers. All these morphological groups were produced using the same flaking and retouching modes. The emergence of the Early Middle Paleolithic is manifested by a technological break, marked by the disappearance of bifaces and thick-flake production technology and the introduction of blade manufacture using laminar and Levallois production methods, and Levallois points and triangular flakes. The mean TL ages of the Acheulo-Yabrudian assemblage indicate production of this cultural complex 257 ± 28 ka – 247 ± 24 ka. The mean TL ages of the Early Middle Paleolithic industries range from 212 ± 27 to 166 ± 23 ka. The pronounced differences in lithic technology together with TL chronology indicate that the transition from the Lower to the Middle Paleolithic in the Levant was rapid and may imply the arrival of a new population around 250 ka

The late Pleistocene climate of Israël / Le climat au Pléistocene récent en Israël

Pollen diagrams obtained from several boreholes in Israel, and pollen analyses of prehistoric sites and strata covering the time span equivalent to the last Interglacial through the last Glacial maximum in Europe serve to delineate the climatic history of the country. The recurrence of paleoclimatic trends in several basins and in different environments ensures than the results reflect the regional climate rather than local conditions. The dating of the analyzed sequences is based on radiocarbon in the upper parts and on correlations with uranium-series and potassium/argon dates obtained for outcrop material in the older strata. The last Interglacial, locally referred to as Interpluvial, is characterized by very low percentages of arboreal pollen, lower than the present day values, which seem to indicate a very poor rain regime of rare thunderstorms, allowing only little water available for plantlife and resulting in severe erosion. This type of climate, with minor fluctuations, persisted in Israel from some 125,000 years up to some 80,000-70,000 years ago. The last Glacial, locally termed Pluvial, is typified by rich arboreal pollen spectra, where the AP takes a considerably higher share than at present, indicating a rain regime different than at the preceedtng interpluvial or the succeeding Holocene. The present day, with typical winter thunderstorms and a moderate vegetation cover is regarded as an interstadial climate. A paleoclimatic model is presented, in an attempt to explain the three main climatic regimes of the late Quaternary.Des diagrammes polliniques obtenus à partir de nombreux sondages en Israël, et des analyses polliniques de sites préhistoriques et de couches correspondant à la période de temps comprise entre le dernier interglaciaire et le maximum de la dernière glaciation en Europe, sont utilisés pour définir l'évolution climatique de la région. La répétition des tendances climatiques dans plusieurs bassins et dans différents environnements permet de penser que les résultats reflètent un climat régional plutôt que des conditions locales. La datation des séquences analysées est basée sur des âges radiocarbone pour la partie supérieure et sur des corrélations avec des âges obtenus par les sens de l'Uranium et le Potassium/Argon sur du matériel en affleurement pour les couches les plus anciennes. Le dernier interglaciaire, localement assimilé à un interpluvial, est caractérisé par des pourcentages très bas de pollens d'arbres, plus bas que les valeurs actuelles, qui semblent indiquer un régime pauvre en pluies liées à de rares orages, apportant peu d'eau utilisable pour la vie des plantes et entraînant une forte érosion. Ce type de climat avec des fluctuations mineures persiste en Israël de 125 000 à environ 80 000-70 000 ans. Le dernier glaciaire, appelé localement pluvial, est défini par un spectre pollinique arboréen riche où les A.P. atteignent un pourcentage plus élevé qu'actuellement, indiquant un régime de pluies différent de l'interpluvial qui précède et de l'Holocène qui suit. Un modèle paléoclimatique est présenté pour essayer d'expliquer les trois régimes climatiques principaux du Quaternaire récent en Israël.Horowitz Aharon, Weinstein-Evron Mina. The late Pleistocene climate of Israël / Le climat au Pléistocene récent en Israël. In: Bulletin de l'Association française pour l'étude du quaternaire, vol. 23, n°1-2, 1986. pp. 84-90