Development of Lure Forages for Minimizing Winter Depredation By Deer in South Dakota

Despite the number of deer (2-31/km2) that inhabit South Dakota, little is known about their growth rates or nutritional requirements and characteristics during severe winters. The objectives for this study were: 1) To document and compare growth rates of fawns from eastern South Dakota and the Black Hills; 2) To develop/evaluate feeds (lure forages) for deterring deer from depredating stored feed sources in South Dakota; and 3) To evaluate physiological and nutritional condition of captive deer maintained on lure forages. Growth rates of captive South Dakota deer were documented from spring 1997 through 1999. Twenty-one white-tailed deer (Odocoi/eus virginianus) fawns that had been abandoned and were turned over to the South Dakota Department of Game Fish and Parks were obtained and raised over a 2-year period. Eleven fawns were obtained from the Black Hills region of South Dakota; 10 fawns were obtained from the eastern portion of the state (east of the Missouri River). Daily growth rates (pre-weaning) of fawns averaged 0.16 � 0.008 [SE] kg. Relative to overall growth rates of white-tailed deer, no difference (P \u3e 0.05) was associated with sex. A significant interaction occurred between year and location (P = 0.019) for fawn weights. At 1 year-of-age a difference in fawn weights was associated with sex (P = 0.014) and location (P = 0.0009). During winter months of 1997-98. 1998-99, and 1999-2000 deer were randomly placed into diet trials. Eight experimental diets/feeds were formulated and fed to captive deer. Diets used in trials were: shelled corn (diet 1 ), a 16% Crude Protein (CP) pelleted ration (diet 2), a 14% CP pelleted ration (diet 3), alfalfa hay (diet 4), pelleted soy hulls (diet 5), pelleted soy hulls combined with shelled corn (diet 6), pelleted soy hulls combined with alfalfa hay (diet 7), and combinations of diets 1, 2, and 4 (diet 8). Nutritional condition of deer was evaluated by monitoring body weights and blood serum metabolites (i.e., glucose [Wesson et al. 1979], blood urea nitrogen [Kirkpatrick et al. 19751), and blood pH (Essig et al. 1988). Blood serum metabolites were chosen to indicate: acidic levels (pH), stress (Cortisol). Dietary protein (Blood Urea Nitrogen [BUN]), and available energy (Glucose). Overall blood parameters did not differ pre-trial (P = 0.114). However, BUN levels posttrial (P \u3c 0.001) differed significantly. Passage rate trials were conducted each winter. Total mean retention time (TMRT) of experimental forages did not differ (F = 0.513, df = 6,25, P = 0.793). Cafeteria trials were conducted January of 2000. Corn was the preferred diet followed by pelleted soy hulls, and alfalfa hay. The 16% pelleted diet appeared to be the least preferred. It is recommended that pelleted soy hulls could be used as a lure forage, provided there is some roughage available to the herd in question

Ecology of White-Tailed Deer in South Dakota: Growth, Survival, and Winter Nutrition

Few studies of the ecology of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been conducted in South Dakota. Despite one subspecies of white-tailed deer (O. v. dakotensis) that inhabits the state, much variation occurs in growth and survival of the species. Furthermore, little is known about winter nutritional requirements of white-tailed deer during severe winters in South Dakota. The objectives of this study were: 1) To model antler and morphological characteristics of captive white-tailed deer while investigating a maternal effect, which potentially influences growth of white-tailed deer from the Black Hills of South Dakota; 2) To determine mortality and habitat use of white-tailed deer fawns in the southern Black Hills, South Dakota; and 3) To evaluate pelleted soy hulls as a lure forage for minimizing winter depredation by deer in South Dakota. Antler and morphological characteristics from 3 cohorts of captive South Dakota white-tailed deer were documented from spring 1997 through fall 2005. Deer were maintained at the Wildlife and Fisheries Research Facility at South Dakota State University. Sixty-one fawns were born during this study and averaged 3.6 kg at birth. Daily growth rates of fawns (pre-weaning) averaged 0.16 kg. At sixteen months-of-age deer weighed an average of 66.0 kg. Yearling females averaged 61.1 kg and yearling males averaged 70.0 kg. Males reached peak body mass at 78 months-of-age and averaged 112.2 kg. Mean peak body mass of first generation, east river (ER1) males was 36.9 kg heavier than first generation, Black Hills (BH1) males. Predictive equations for total body mass were (kg) = -232.530 + 0.565*neck circumference (cm) + 1.137*chest circumference (cm) + 5.620*nose-to-eye length (cm) + 0.436*total body length (cm) for males and -98.513 + 2.516*total body length (cm) for females. Peak antler development occurred at 78 months-of-age for most males and averaged 142 1/8 non-typical Boone and Crocket score. Gross non-typical scores differed (P = 0.020) between cohorts. It is likely that deer from the Black Hills are affected by a negative maternal effect. Second generation males have acquired 50% of the difference between first generation males in terms of body weight and 43% of the difference in antler scores. Seventy-eight fawn white-tailed deer were captured and fitted with motion sensing radio collars from 1999 – 2002. Fawns were captured through ground searches using doe behavior as an indicator of recent parturition. Total annual mortality was 65% with 59% of mortality occurring summer-fall (1 June through 31 October) and 8% winter-spring (1 November through 31 May). Of the 47 mortalities that occurred during study duration, predation caused 65%, illegal harvest accounted for 4%, and 31% were due to unknown causes. Months when mortalities did not occur were in April and May. Fifty percent of the summer mortality was male fawns and 50% of the winter mortality was male fawns. The null hypothesis that mortality is independent of sex was tested and failed to be rejected with 50% mortality for male fawns and 50% mortality for female fawns occurring for this study. Habitat preference for diurnal bedsites was evaluated for the first 120 days of a fawn’s life; 171 diurnal bed sites were evaluated. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) were the predominant tree species present. Overstory canopy cover at bed sites was less than 34%. Litter averaged 22.2% (+ 1.07) of understory cover at fawn bed sites, with slash averaging 9.1% (+ 0.52), grasses 38.4% (+ 1.19), and the presence of 14 species of shrubs. Based on results of diet trials, pelleted soy hulls were successful in maintaining captive deer and thus, were used in field trials. During winter 2000 – 2001, three farm sites that had a history of deer depredation were chosen to evaluate the effectiveness of using pelleted soy hulls as a lure forage to minimize depredation by deer. Short stopping deer by placing a preferred forage between deer and stored hay/grain was a technique employed by the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks employees during the winters of 1993-94 and 1996-97. Feeding at the three sites varied from 51 – 74 days. Estimate of deer numbers visiting feeding sites was 105 animals. Estimates were obtained from visual observations, photos obtained from motion sensing cameras placed at feeding sites, and landowner estimates. Feeds were weighed daily to determine intake. Based on feed consumption and estimates of deer numbers, approximately 0.68 kg/deer/day of feed was consumed

Preference of White-Tailed Deer for Corn Hybrids and Agricultural Husbandry Practices During the Growing Season

Damage to field corn (Zea mays) by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can be substantial, resulting in millions of dollars lost annually. Numerous methods exist to minimize deer depredation, but all have met with varying degrees of success. Currently, little information is available on preference of white-tailed deer for corn hybrids during the growing season and how that preference might affect depredation patterns. We used adult female white-tailed deer in captivity to study the effect of herbicide treatments on deer-use (treatment versus no treatment) of corn in 2005 and to document preference among specific corn hybrids in 2006 and 2007 using manipulated corn food plots. In 2005, 67% of deer-feeding activity occurred in herbicidetreated areas; deer preferred to feed on the edges of food plots (78%). In 2006 and 2007, deer exhibited preferential patterns of feeding (P \u3c 0.05) among corn hybrids throughout the study period and during most phenological growth phases of corn plants. Deer preference was not related to physical characteristics of hybrids but was related to days to maturity and nutritional content. Deer preferred earlier maturing hybrids that contained higher levels of digestible dry matter. Wildlife managers and crop producers could use corn hybrids and husbandry practices desirable to deer (i.e., earlier maturing hybrids with higher digestibility and fertilizer and herbicide application) to reduce damage to field corn by altering type and placement of corn

Perinatal Licensing of Thermogenesis by IL-33 and ST2

For placental mammals, the transition from the in utero maternal environment to postnatal life requires the activation of thermogenesis to maintain their core temperature. This is primarily accomplished by induction of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in brown and beige adipocytes, the principal sites for uncoupled respiration. Despite its importance, how placental mammals license their thermogenic adipocytes to participate in postnatal uncoupled respiration is not known. Here, we provide evidence that the ‘alarmin’ IL-33, a nuclear cytokine that activates type 2 immune responses, licenses brown and beige adipocytes for uncoupled respiration. We find that, in absence of IL-33 or ST2, beige and brown adipocytes develop normally but fail to express an appropriately spliced form of Ucp1 mRNA, resulting in absence of UCP1 protein, and impairment in uncoupled respiration and thermoregulation. Together, these data suggest that IL-33 and ST2 function as a developmental switch to license thermogenesis during the perinatal period