Midwives in Health Sciences as a Sociocultural Phenomenon: Legislation, Training and Health (XV–XVIII Centuries)

Background and Objectives: The first inquisitorial processes were developed against Muslims and Jews. Then, they focused on women, especially those dedicated to care. Progressively, they were linked to witchcraft and sorcery due to their great assistance, generational and empirical knowledge. The health historiography of the 15th–18th centuries still has important bibliographic and interpretive gaps in the care provided by women. The main objective was to analyse the care provided by midwives in the legislative and socio-sanitary context of New Castile, in the inquisitorial Spain of the 15th–18th centuries. Materials and Methods: A historical review was conducted, following the Dialectical Structural Model of Care. Historical manuals, articles and databases were analysed. Results: The Catholic Monarchs established health profession regulations in 1477, including midwives. However, all legislations were annulled by Felipe II in 1576. These were not resumed until 1750. Midwives assumed a huge range of functions in their care commitment (teaching, care and religion) and were valued in opposing ways. However, many of them were persecuted and condemned by the Inquisition. They used to accompany therapeutic action with prayers and charms. Midwives were usually women in a social vulnerability situation, who did not comply with social stereotypes. Conclusions: Midwives, forerunners of current nursing and health sciences, overcame sociocultural difficulties, although they were condemned for it. Midwives achieved an accredited title, which was taken from them for two centuries. They acted as health agents in a society that demanded them while participating in a “witch hunt”

Wet Nurse or Milk Bank? Evolution in the Model of Human Lactation: New Challenges for the Islamic Population

(1) Introduction: The establishment of milk banks in the Islamic world as well as donation to Islamic families in Western countries remains a challenge in the context of human lactation. Religious reservations established since the Qur’an and regulated at the legal–religious and medical level equate milk kinship with consanguinity, which prevents donation. The aim of the study was to analyse the evolution in the model of breastfeeding and care in Islamic society. (2) Methods: The methodology of comparative history was applied, following the structural–dialectical model of care. Historical manuals, articles and databases were analysed. (3) Results: Paediatric care in medical manuals from the 10th–15th centuries is similar to that practiced by the Muslim population today, some beneficial, some harmful; the wet nurse had to follow a series of dietary habits and have a series of physical, moral and educational characteristics in order to be hired. They constituted a beginning of pseudo-professionalisation, in a domestic–family framework. Human milk was used as a remedy for different health problems. (4) Conclusions: Islamic society and nursing have to evolve towards transnational care adapted to the needs of the population

Amamentação: transição alimentar durante a guerra espanhola e o período pós-guerra (1936-1949)

Durante los años 1900 hasta 1936, la salud infantil comenzaba a ganar importancia en Europa. En España, la mortalidad infantil era elevada. Para contrarrestar esta situación, el estado propuso medidas sanitarias, educativas y alimentarias. Objetivo. Analizar la Guerra Civil Española (1936-1939), que continuó con los “años del hambre” durante la posguerra (1939-1949), conocidos por el racionamiento de alimentos y decadencia de la salud materno-infantil. Método. Estudio histórico descriptivo con fuentes primarias y secundarias. Que trata sobre, el contexto sociosanitario y la transición alimentaria, que vivieron los infantes durante la guerra y posguerra española (1936-1949). Resultados. El gobierno realizó una promoción de la lactancia materna guiada por pediatras de la época, no obstante, la leche de fórmula ganó importancia, debido a la modificación de la estructura familiar básica. La figura clásica de la mujer se fracturó, en favor del trabajo en las fábricas o, en última instancia, como participantes activas en la guerra. Conclusiones. Las instituciones sanitarias, se centraron en el cuidado de heridos, cuestión que repercutió en la atención del niño enfermo. Esta situación dio lugar a altas tasas de morbimortalidad infantil, las cuales se mantuvieron hasta el final de la posguerra.During the years 1900 to 1936, children’s health began to gain importance in Europe. In Spain, infant mortality was high. To counteract this situation, the state proposed health, educational and food measures. Objective. To analyze the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), which continued with the “hungry years” of the post-war period (1939-1949), known for food rationing and the decline of mother and child health. Method. Historical descriptive study with primary and secondary sources. It deals with the socio-health context and the food transition experienced by infants during the Spanish war and post-war period (1936-1949). Results. The government carried out a promotion of breastfeeding guided by pediatricians of the time, however, formula gained importance, due to the modification of the basic family structure. The classic figure of the woman was fractured, in favour of working in factories or, ultimately, as active participants in the war. Conclusions. Health institutions focused on the care of the wounded, an issue that impacted on the care of the sick child. This situation resulted in high rates of child morbidity and mortality, which continued until the end of the post-war period.Durante os anos de 1900 a 1936, a saúde das crianças começou a ganhar importância na Europa. Em Espanha, a mortalidade infantil foi elevada. Para contrariar esta situação, o Estado propôs medidas sanitárias, educativas e alimentares. Objectivo. Analisar a Guerra Civil Espanhola (1936-1939), que continuou com os “anos de fome” do pós-guerra (1939-1949), conhecida pelo racionamento de alimentos e pelo declínio da saúde materna e infantil. Método. Estudo descritivo histórico com fontes primárias e secundárias. Trata do contexto sócio-sanitário e da transição alimentar vivida pelos bebés durante a guerra espanhola e o período pós-guerra (1936-1949). Resultados. O governo realizou uma promoção da amamentação orientada por pediatras da época, mas a fórmula ganhou importância, devido à modificação da estrutura básica da família. A figura clássica da mulher foi fracturada, a favor de trabalhar em fábricas ou, em última análise, como participante activa na guerra. Conclusões. As instituições de saúde concentraram-se no cuidado dos feridos, uma questão que teve impacto no cuidado da criança doente. Esta situação resultou em elevadas taxas de morbilidade e mortalidade infantil, que se mantiveram até ao final do período pós-guerra

A mãe Pasiege: transição da actividade biológica para a actividade laboral (1830-1930)

Las nodrizas son las encargadas de la lactancia, educación y cuidados de hijos ajenos. Estas mujeres han tenido un papel en la sociedad desde la Antigüedad. Esta figura adquirió especial relevancia en España durante 1830-1930 ligada a la monarquía. El contrato de sus servicios tenía como causa problemas de salud de la madre biológica, pero se convirtió en un privilegio. La elección de estas mujeres se basaba en exámenes realizados por médicos y sacerdotes, que garantizaran la buena salud física y moral. Las amas de leche norteñas comenzaron a ser demandadas, especialmente las procedentes del Valle del Pas, las cuales emigraron a las zonas urbanas, como Madrid. Estas mujeres eran consideradas más saludables y aptas para realizar este oficio debido a su estado físico de robustez y su vida en la naturaleza. El contrato tenía implícito un sueldo y estaba regulado por leyes (1904 Protección a la Infancia y Real Decreto 1910). Sus servicios se realizaban en casas de expósitos y en hogares de las familias, incluso de la realeza. Cabe destacar la importancia de la nodriza, en un periodo histórico con altas tasas de mortalidad infantil, ya que fomentaron la supervivencia de los recién nacidos.The wet nurses are in charge of breastfeeding, education and care of other people's children. These women have had a role in society since ancient times. This figure acquired special relevance in Spain during 1830-1930 linked to the monarchy. The contract for their services had as a cause health problems of the biological mother, but it became a privilege. The choice of these women was based on examinations carried out by doctors and priests, which guaranteed good physical and moral health. Northern women began to be sued, especially those from the Pas Valley, who migrated to urban areas, such as Madrid. These women were considered to be healthier and more suitable for this trade due to their robust physical condition and their life in nature. The contract had an implicit salary and was regulated by law (1904 Child Protection and Royal Decree 1910). Their services were carried out in houses of foundlings and in the homes of families, including royalty. It is worth noting the importance of the wet nurse, in a historical period with high infant mortality rates, as they encouraged the survival of newborns.As enfermeiras húmidas são responsáveis pela amamentação, educação e cuidados com os filhos de outras pessoas. Estas mulheres têm tido um papel na sociedade desde os tempos antigos. Este número adquiriu especial relevância em Espanha durante 1830-1930, ligado à monarquia. O contrato dos seus serviços tinha como causa problemas de saúde da mãe biológica, mas tornou-se um privilégio. A escolha destas mulheres baseou-se em exames realizados por médicos e padres, que garantiam uma boa saúde física e moral. As mulheres do Norte começaram a ser processadas, especialmente as do Vale do Pas, que migraram para zonas urbanas, como Madrid. Estas mulheres foram consideradas mais saudáveis e mais adequadas para este comércio devido ao seu robusto estado físico e à sua vida na natureza. O contrato tinha um salário implícito e era regulado por lei (1904 Protecção da Criança e Decreto Real de 1910). Os seus serviços foram realizados em casas de fundição e nas casas das famílias, incluindo a realeza. É de salientar a importância da enfermeira húmida, num período histórico com elevadas taxas de mortalidade infantil, uma vez que incentivavam a sobrevivência dos recémnascidos

Biomass-modulated fire dynamics during the last glacial-interglacial transition at the central pyrenees (Spain)

Understanding long-term fire ecology is essential for current day interpretation of ecosystem fire responses. However palaeoecology of fire is still poorly understood, especially at high-altitude mountain environments, despite the fact that these are fire-sensitive ecosystems and their resilience might be affected by changing fire regimes. We reconstruct wildfire occurrence since the Lateglacial (14.7. cal. ka BP) to the Mid-Holocene (6. cal. ka BP) and investigate the climate-fuel-fire relationships in a sedimentary sequence located at the treeline in the Central Spanish Pyrenees. Pollen, macro- and micro-charcoal were analysed for the identification of fire events (FE) in order to detect vegetation post-fire response and to define biomass-fire interactions. mean fire intervals (mfi) reduced since the Lateglacial, peaking at 9-7.7. cal. ka BP while from 7.7 to 6. cal. ka BP no fire is recorded. We hypothesise that Early Holocene maximum summer insolation, as climate forcing, and mesophyte forest expansion, as a fuel-creating factor, were responsible for accelerating fire occurrence in the Central Pyrenees treeline. We also found that fire had long-lasting negative effects on most of the treeline plant communities and that forest contraction from 7.7. cal. ka BP is likely linked to the ecosystem's threshold response to high fire frequencies.This research has been funded by the projects DINAMO (CGL2009-07992) (funding EGPF — grant ref. BES-2010-038593 and MSC), DINAMO2 (CGL2012-33063), ARAFIRE (2012 GA LC 064), GRACCIE-CONSOLIDER (CSD2007-00067). GGR was funded by the Juan de la Cierva Program (grant ref. JCI2009-04345) and JAE-Doc CSIC Program, LLM was supported by a postdoctoral MINT fellowship funded by the Institute for the Environment (Brunel University), AMC is a Ramón y Cajal fellow (ref: RYC-2008-02431), APS holds a grant funded by the Aragon Government (ref. 17030G/5423/480072/14003) and JAE holds a grant funded by the Basque Country Government (BFI-2010-5)

Woman, Mother, Wet Nurse: Engine of Child Health Promotion in the Spanish Monarchy (1850–1910)

In Spain, the wet nurse increased the survival of children through care and breastfeeding of other women’s children. They had a great development together with the Spanish monarchy between 1850 and 1910. The aim is to identify the role of wet nurses in the Spanish monarchy and the survival of the royal infants (s. XIX–XX). A scoping review is presented to study documents about the wet nurse in the Spanish monarchy. Applying the dialectical structural model of care (DSMC). Recognizing five thematic blocks that shape the historical-cultural model. Books, decrees and databases were analyzed: Scopus, Scielo, Dialnet, Cuiden, Medline/Pubmed, CINAHL, Science Direct and Google Scholar, from January to July 2020. The selection process was rigorous because it was difficult to choose. They had to overcome medical and moral exams. The selected rural northern wet nurses emigrated to Madrid. The contract was regulated by laws and paid. Wet nurses were hired by the monarchy due to health problems of the biological mother and a need for greater offspring. The wet nurse wore a typical costume, a symbol of wealth. The northern wet nurses hired by the monarchists have been the engine that has promoted the health of infants through the breastfeeding process.This research was funded by co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Resolution of 19/02/2020 (DOCM 26/02/2020), of the University of Castilla-La Mancha and The APC was funded by “Grupo Investigación ENDOCU”, 2020-GRIN-29236 (Nursing, Pain and Care, of the Faculty of Physiotherapy and Nursing, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo Campus, Spain

Historia del fuego y la vegetación en una secuencia Holocena del Pirineo Central: La Basa de la Mora

[EN] The importance of studying past fire regimes is derived from the need to understand the effects of current Global Change on present and future fire activity. Studying the relationship between long-term fire ecology, ecosystems and climate allows us to understand how vegetation responds to this perturbation and to define the thresholds triggering irreversible changes in the vegetation. This work presents the last 10 000 years of vegetation change and fire activity on a high altitude ecosystem from the Pyrenees range: the mountain lake Basa de la Mora located in the central southern Pyrenees. Holocene fire activity has been inferred through fossil carbon particle identification in the sedimentary sequence obtained in this lake. We observe that the strongest Holocene fire activity in the area occurred between 8.1 and 4 cal Kyr BP. This period was followed by a phase, between 3.2 and 1.7 cal Kyr BP, where almost no fire activity was recorded. These changes seem to be due to biomass availability and fire-conductive climate conditions. Positive correlation has been found between fire activity and Betula, Corylus, as the key fueling taxa and groups of ariditytolerant taxa. Additionally, fire dynamics seems coupled to higher anthropogenic activities after 1.7 cal Kyr BP. © Universidad de La Rioja.[ES] La importancia del estudio de la actividad del fuego en el pasado está en la necesidad de comprender los efectos que el Cambio Global puede tener sobre la misma, tanto en la actualidad como en el futuro. Estudiar cómo se relaciona el fuego con los ecosistemas y el clima en escalas temporales lo suficientemente largas permite conocer la respuesta de la vegetación a esta perturbación y definir los umbrales que provocan cambios irreversibles en la composición vegetal. Este trabajo estudia la dinámica del fuego durante el Holoceno en el entorno de la Basa de la Mora, lago de origen glaciar situado en el Macizo de Cotiella, Pirineo Central. La historia del fuego se ha reconstruido a partir de la identificación de partículas de carbón fósil a lo largo de la secuencia sedimentaria extraída del lago, que cubre los últimos 10 000 años de historia. Se ha observado que la mayor actividad del fuego se produce entre 8.1 y 4 cal Ka BP, seguida de una fase de menor actividad entre 3.2 y 1.7 cal Ka BP. Estas fluctuaciones se deben principalmente a dos razones: la cantidad de biomasa disponible y susceptible de ser quemada, y la existencia de un clima favorable para la ocurrencia de incendios. En ese sentido, se han observado correlaciones positivas de la actividad del fuego, por un lado, con Betula y Corylus como taxones ligados a la mayor producción de biomasa, y por otro, con agrupaciones de taxones adaptados a la aridez como indicadores de climas favorables a la ocurrencia de incendios. Por último, a partir de 1.7 cal Ka BP se registra en la secuencia una mayor incidencia del fuego, probablemente vinculada a la intensificación de la acción antropogénica a nivel regional.Esta investigación ha sido financiada con los proyectos ARAFIRE Convenio DGAla Caixa ref. 2012 GA LC 064, DINAMO ref. CGL2009-07992, GRACCIE-CONSOLIDER ref. CSD2007-00067 y HORDA-OAPN ref: 83/2009.Peer Reviewe

A mãe Pasiege: transição da actividade biológica para a actividade laboral (1830-1930)

Las nodrizas son las encargadas de la lactancia, educación y cuidados de hijos ajenos. Estas mujeres han tenido un papel en la sociedad desde la Antigüedad. Esta figura adquirió especial relevancia en España durante 1830-1930 ligada a la monarquía. El contrato de sus servicios tenía como causa problemas de salud de la madre biológica, pero se convirtió en un privilegio. La elección de estas mujeres se basaba en exámenes realizados por médicos y sacerdotes, que garantizaran la buena salud física y moral. Las amas de leche norteñas comenzaron a ser demandadas, especialmente las procedentes del Valle del Pas, las cuales emigraron a las zonas urbanas, como Madrid. Estas mujeres eran consideradas más saludables y aptas para realizar este oficio debido a su estado físico de robustez y su vida en la naturaleza. El contrato tenía implícito un sueldo y estaba regulado por leyes (1904 Protección a la Infancia y Real Decreto 1910). Sus servicios se realizaban en casas de expósitos y en hogares de las familias, incluso de la realeza. Cabe destacar la importancia de la nodriza, en un periodo histórico con altas tasas de mortalidad infantil, ya que fomentaron la supervivencia de los recién nacidos.The wet nurses are in charge of breastfeeding, education and care of other people's children. These women have had a role in society since ancient times. This figure acquired special relevance in Spain during 1830-1930 linked to the monarchy. The contract for their services had as a cause health problems of the biological mother, but it became a privilege. The choice of these women was based on examinations carried out by doctors and priests, which guaranteed good physical and moral health. Northern women began to be sued, especially those from the Pas Valley, who migrated to urban areas, such as Madrid. These women were considered to be healthier and more suitable for this trade due to their robust physical condition and their life in nature. The contract had an implicit salary and was regulated by law (1904 Child Protection and Royal Decree 1910). Their services were carried out in houses of foundlings and in the homes of families, including royalty. It is worth noting the importance of the wet nurse, in a historical period with high infant mortality rates, as they encouraged the survival of newborns.As enfermeiras húmidas são responsáveis pela amamentação, educação e cuidados com os filhos de outras pessoas. Estas mulheres têm tido um papel na sociedade desde os tempos antigos. Este número adquiriu especial relevância em Espanha durante 1830-1930, ligado à monarquia. O contrato dos seus serviços tinha como causa problemas de saúde da mãe biológica, mas tornou-se um privilégio. A escolha destas mulheres baseou-se em exames realizados por médicos e padres, que garantiam uma boa saúde física e moral. As mulheres do Norte começaram a ser processadas, especialmente as do Vale do Pas, que migraram para zonas urbanas, como Madrid. Estas mulheres foram consideradas mais saudáveis e mais adequadas para este comércio devido ao seu robusto estado físico e à sua vida na natureza. O contrato tinha um salário implícito e era regulado por lei (1904 Protecção da Criança e Decreto Real de 1910). Os seus serviços foram realizados em casas de fundição e nas casas das famílias, incluindo a realeza. É de salientar a importância da enfermeira húmida, num período histórico com elevadas taxas de mortalidade infantil, uma vez que incentivavam a sobrevivência dos recémnascidos

Impacto de la pandemia por SARS-CoV-2 en un banco de leche humana.

Introduction: the pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 led to the declaration of the state of sanitary alarm between March and June 2020 in Spain. The activity of human milk banks was affected during that period, making it necessary to implement new measures in order to promote milk donation and diminish said impact. Method and objective: the aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of the state of alarm decreed from March 14 to June 22, 2020 on the breastmilk bank at Hospital Virgen de las Nieves, Granada, Spain, in comparison with the same period during the previous year. To that end, a retrospective descriptive study was undertaken in which the activity indicators of the breastmilk bank were collected and compared to data from the milk bank at Hospital Virgen de las Nieves and peripheral collaborating centers. Results: during the first state of alarm in 2020 a global reduction was seen in new donor registrations, number of donors who donated milk, donated mean volume per mother, and total volume of received and pasteurized milk. However, new registrations and number of donors who donated milk during this period increased in Granada's breastmilk bank. Discussion: the new measures adopted in the breastmilk bank in Granada, such as encouraging milk donation in mothers with admitted newborns in the Neonatal Unit, increasing information given to mothers, and home collection of donated milk, allowed to attenuate the impact of the pandemic while guaranteeing safety

Woman, Mother, Wet Nurse: Engine of Child Health Promotion in the Spanish Monarchy (1850–1910)

In Spain, the wet nurse increased the survival of children through care and breastfeeding of other women’s children. They had a great development together with the Spanish monarchy between 1850 and 1910. The aim is to identify the role of wet nurses in the Spanish monarchy and the survival of the royal infants (s. XIX–XX). A scoping review is presented to study documents about the wet nurse in the Spanish monarchy. Applying the dialectical structural model of care (DSMC). Recognizing five thematic blocks that shape the historical-cultural model. Books, decrees and databases were analyzed: Scopus, Scielo, Dialnet, Cuiden, Medline/Pubmed, CINAHL, Science Direct and Google Scholar, from January to July 2020. The selection process was rigorous because it was difficult to choose. They had to overcome medical and moral exams. The selected rural northern wet nurses emigrated to Madrid. The contract was regulated by laws and paid. Wet nurses were hired by the monarchy due to health problems of the biological mother and a need for greater offspring. The wet nurse wore a typical costume, a symbol of wealth. The northern wet nurses hired by the monarchists have been the engine that has promoted the health of infants through the breastfeeding process