Associations and propositions: the case for a dual-process account of learning in humans

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier. NOTICE: This is the author’s version of a work accepted for publication by Elsevier. Changes resulting from the publishing process, including peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting and other quality control mechanisms, may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently published in Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 2014, vol. 108, pp. 185 – 195 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.09.014We review evidence that supports the conclusion that people can and do learn in two distinct ways - one associative, the other propositional. No one disputes that we solve problems by testing hypotheses and inducing underlying rules, so the issue amounts to deciding whether there is evidence that we (and other animals) also rely on a simpler, associative system, that detects the frequency of occurrence of different events in our environment and the contingencies between them. There is neuroscientific evidence that associative learning occurs in at least some animals (e.g., Aplysia californica), so it must be the case that associative learning has evolved. Since both associative and propositional theories can in principle account for many instances of successful learning, the problem is then to show that there are at least some cases where the two classes of theory predict different outcomes. We offer a demonstration of cue competition effects in humans under incidental conditions as evidence against the argument that all such effects are based on cognitive inference. The latter supposition would imply that if the necessary information is unavailable to inference then no cue competition should occur. We then discuss the case of unblocking by reinforcer omission, where associative theory predicts an irrational solution to the problem, and consider the phenomenon of the Perruchet effect, in which conscious expectancy and conditioned response dissociate. Further discussion makes use of evidence that people will sometimes provide one solution to a problem when it is presented to them in summary form, and another when they are presented in rapid succession with trial-by trial information. We also demonstrate that people trained on a discrimination may show a peak shift (predicted by associative theory), but given the time and opportunity to detect the relationships between S+ and S-, show rule-based behavior instead. Finally, we conclude by presenting evidence that research on individual differences suggests that variation in intelligence and explicit problem solving ability are quite unrelated to variation in implicit (associative) learning, and briefly consider the computational implications of our argument, by asking how both associative and propositional processes can be accommodated within a single framework for cognition.ESR

Esquistossomose mansônica. I - evolução do quadro patológico: análise parasitológica, hematológica e histopatológica Schistosomiasis mansoni. I - evolution of the pathologic picture: parasitologic, hematologic, and histopathologic analyses

Com o objetivo de acompanhar a evolução da infecção bissexual primária de camundongos por S. mansoni, foram infectados camundongos Swiss com 100 cercárias da linhagem mineira (BH) de Schistosoma mansoni. A evolução da infecção foi acompanhada por um período de 8 semanas. Foi verificada uma relação entre o número de granulomas hepáticos e o número de vermes totais. O ganho de peso corporal, o peso do baço e a percentagem do peso do fígado em relação ao peso corporal foram diferentes quando comparados os animais infectados e controles. O quadro leucocitário dos camundongos infectados apresentou alterações no número de leucócitos totais, neutrófilos e linfócitos. Os exames histológicos do baço e do fígado revelaram alterações nestes órgãos de acordo com a fase da infecção.<br>In order to accompany the evolution of primary bisexual inifection of mice by Schistosoma mansoni, Swiss mice were infected with 100 cercariae of the Belo Horizonte strain of Schistosoma mansoni, and the infection's evolution was followed for eight weeks. A relationship between the number of hepatic granulomas and the number of worms was verified. Body weight gain, spleen, and the percentage of the liver weight in relation to body weight were different when compared to infected and control animals. White blood cells in the infected mice presented alterations in the total number of leukocytes, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. The histologic analyses of the spleen and liver revealed alterations in these organs; these alterations varied according to the stage of infection