Science-policy interplay on air pollution governance in China

Air quality in China is a major public health, social and economic concern. Air pollution governance and research in China have been increasingly active in the past decade, especially since 2013 when strict emission controls were implemented. Such emission control policies have been informed through dialogue between scientists and policy-makers on the sources and transport of air pollution in order to identify potential control measures. However, the process of making regulatory decisions about air pollution controls at this science-policy interface in China has rarely been analysed or discussed. We outline four classical science-policy models for making regulatory decisions proposed by scholars: (i) the decisionist model – whereby policy dictates what science and regulatory decisions are required; (ii) the technocratic model – where science dictates policy directly; (iii) the inverted decisionist model (where scientists advise policy-makers on what policy is required); and (iv) the co-evolutionary model (where policy-makers and scientists jointly create regulatory decisions). Boundary-actors play a key role in this co-evolutionary model. They operate as ‘gate-keepers’ between scientists and policy-makers. Most contemporary studies of the science-policy interface argue that the co-evolutionary model best captures the reality of how science and policy interact effectively to make regulatory decisions. To assess which of these models most closely resemble decision-making at the air pollution science-policy interface, we conducted a case study on “air quality climate services” and held workshops with Chinese scientists, decision-makers and stakeholders. A typology of existing scientific approaches to explore air quality climate science is presented. The workshop results show that the current air quality climate science-policy interplay occurs most strongly in accordance with the co-evolutionary model whereby the Beijing Climate Centre and the National Environmental Monitoring Centre operate as the key boundary actors between science and policy, specifically for a seasonal air pollution haze outlook service. We illustrate that current seasonal haze outlooks carefully avoiding quantification. We then present a conceptual framework of the air pollution science-policy interface in China, which captures the main participants and the interactive flow of information between them

Science-policy interplay on air pollution governance in China

Air quality in China is a major public health, social and economic concern. Air pollution governance and research in China have been increasingly active in the past decade, especially since 2013 when strict emission controls were implemented. Such emission control policies have been informed through dialogue between scientists and policy-makers on the sources and transport of air pollution in order to identify potential control measures. However, the process of making regulatory decisions about air pollution controls at this science-policy interface in China has rarely been analysed or discussed. We outline four classical science-policy models for making regulatory decisions proposed by scholars: (i) the decisionist model – whereby policy dictates what science and regulatory decisions are required; (ii) the technocratic model – where science dictates policy directly; (iii) the inverted decisionist model (where scientists advise policy-makers on what policy is required); and (iv) the co-evolutionary model (where policy-makers and scientists jointly create regulatory decisions). Boundary-actors play a key role in this co-evolutionary model. They operate as ‘gate-keepers’ between scientists and policy-makers. Most contemporary studies of the science-policy interface argue that the co-evolutionary model best captures the reality of how science and policy interact effectively to make regulatory decisions. To assess which of these models most closely resemble decision-making at the air pollution science-policy interface, we conducted a case study on “air quality climate services” and held workshops with Chinese scientists, decision-makers and stakeholders. A typology of existing scientific approaches to explore air quality climate science is presented. The workshop results show that the current air quality climate science-policy interplay occurs most strongly in accordance with the co-evolutionary model whereby the Beijing Climate Centre and the National Environmental Monitoring Centre operate as the key boundary actors between science and policy, specifically for a seasonal air pollution haze outlook service. We illustrate that current seasonal haze outlooks carefully avoiding quantification. We then present a conceptual framework of the air pollution science-policy interface in China, which captures the main participants and the interactive flow of information between them

The Roles of Serum Selenium and Selenoproteins on Mercury Toxicity in Environmental and Occupational Exposure

Many studies have found that mercury (Hg) exposure is associated with selenium (Se) accumulation in vivo. However, human studies are limited. To study the interaction between Se and Hg, we investigated the total Se and Hg concentrations in body fluids and serum Se-containing proteins in individuals exposed to high concentrations of Hg. Our objective was to elucidate the possible roles of serum Se and selenoproteins in transporting and binding Hg in human populations. We collected data from 72 subjects: 35 had very low Hg exposure as evidenced by mean Hg concentrations of 0.91 and 1.25 ng/mL measured in serum and urine, respectively; 37 had high exposure (mean Hg concentrations of 38.5 and 86.8 ng/mL measured in serum and urine, respectively). An association between Se and Hg was found in urine (r = 0.625; p < 0.001) but not in serum. Hg exposure may affect Se concentrations and selenoprotein distribution in human serum. Expression of both selenoprotein P and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was greatly increased in Hg miners. These increases were accompanied by elevated Se concentrations in serum. In addition, selenoprotein P bound more Hg at higher Hg exposure concentrations. Biochemical observations revealed that both GSH-Px activity and malondialdehyde concentrations increased in serum of the Hg-exposed group. This study aids in the understanding of the interaction between Se and Hg. Selenoproteins play two important roles in protecting against Hg toxicity. First, they may bind more Hg through their highly reactive selenol group, and second, their antioxidative properties help eliminate the reactive oxygen species induced by Hg in vivo

Air quality services on climate time-scales for decision making: An empirical study of China

The provision of climate services for assessing and governing environmental problems such as poor air quality requires interactions between scientists and decision-makers. Air quality information services in China mainly focus on the coming days to weeks. However, users may benefit from air quality information on climate time-scales—from months to decades; hereafter air quality climate services. We focused on key decision-makers and stakeholders that are users of air quality climate services and conducted five workshops with these identified users to ascertain their priorities for air quality climate services, and the reasoning behind these priorities. We also conducted a choice-based conjoint experiment via an online survey distributed amongst regional and local Climate Centres and Environmental Monitoring Centres to assess quantitatively the decision-makers’ needs. The results from the workshops and the survey showed that the needs for air quality climate services by users in China mainly relate to seasonal forecasting of winter haze events (PM2.5 levels and/or the meteorological conditions conducive to the dispersion of the air pollution); there is also some interest in long-term projections of haze under climate change and a growing interest in ozone pollution in summer. Spatial relevance is perceived to be important to regional and city-level stakeholders who prefer information on the city-level, whilst national-wide information is important for national government agencies. A high level of reliability of forecasts was needed for uptake. The findings on the needs for air quality climate services by potential users can support researchers and policy-makers in developing the scientific capacity and providing tailored and effective air quality climate services in China

The state of the Martian climate

60°N was +2.0°C, relative to the 1981–2010 average value (Fig. 5.1). This marks a new high for the record. The average annual surface air temperature (SAT) anomaly for 2016 for land stations north of starting in 1900, and is a significant increase over the previous highest value of +1.2°C, which was observed in 2007, 2011, and 2015. Average global annual temperatures also showed record values in 2015 and 2016. Currently, the Arctic is warming at more than twice the rate of lower latitudes

State of the climate in 2018

In 2018, the dominant greenhouse gases released into Earth’s atmosphere—carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—continued their increase. The annual global average carbon dioxide concentration at Earth’s surface was 407.4 ± 0.1 ppm, the highest in the modern instrumental record and in ice core records dating back 800 000 years. Combined, greenhouse gases and several halogenated gases contribute just over 3 W m−2 to radiative forcing and represent a nearly 43% increase since 1990. Carbon dioxide is responsible for about 65% of this radiative forcing. With a weak La Niña in early 2018 transitioning to a weak El Niño by the year’s end, the global surface (land and ocean) temperature was the fourth highest on record, with only 2015 through 2017 being warmer. Several European countries reported record high annual temperatures. There were also more high, and fewer low, temperature extremes than in nearly all of the 68-year extremes record. Madagascar recorded a record daily temperature of 40.5°C in Morondava in March, while South Korea set its record high of 41.0°C in August in Hongcheon. Nawabshah, Pakistan, recorded its highest temperature of 50.2°C, which may be a new daily world record for April. Globally, the annual lower troposphere temperature was third to seventh highest, depending on the dataset analyzed. The lower stratospheric temperature was approximately fifth lowest. The 2018 Arctic land surface temperature was 1.2°C above the 1981–2010 average, tying for third highest in the 118-year record, following 2016 and 2017. June’s Arctic snow cover extent was almost half of what it was 35 years ago. Across Greenland, however, regional summer temperatures were generally below or near average. Additionally, a satellite survey of 47 glaciers in Greenland indicated a net increase in area for the first time since records began in 1999. Increasing permafrost temperatures were reported at most observation sites in the Arctic, with the overall increase of 0.1°–0.2°C between 2017 and 2018 being comparable to the highest rate of warming ever observed in the region. On 17 March, Arctic sea ice extent marked the second smallest annual maximum in the 38-year record, larger than only 2017. The minimum extent in 2018 was reached on 19 September and again on 23 September, tying 2008 and 2010 for the sixth lowest extent on record. The 23 September date tied 1997 as the latest sea ice minimum date on record. First-year ice now dominates the ice cover, comprising 77% of the March 2018 ice pack compared to 55% during the 1980s. Because thinner, younger ice is more vulnerable to melting out in summer, this shift in sea ice age has contributed to the decreasing trend in minimum ice extent. Regionally, Bering Sea ice extent was at record lows for almost the entire 2017/18 ice season. For the Antarctic continent as a whole, 2018 was warmer than average. On the highest points of the Antarctic Plateau, the automatic weather station Relay (74°S) broke or tied six monthly temperature records throughout the year, with August breaking its record by nearly 8°C. However, cool conditions in the western Bellingshausen Sea and Amundsen Sea sector contributed to a low melt season overall for 2017/18. High SSTs contributed to low summer sea ice extent in the Ross and Weddell Seas in 2018, underpinning the second lowest Antarctic summer minimum sea ice extent on record. Despite conducive conditions for its formation, the ozone hole at its maximum extent in September was near the 2000–18 mean, likely due to an ongoing slow decline in stratospheric chlorine monoxide concentration. Across the oceans, globally averaged SST decreased slightly since the record El Niño year of 2016 but was still far above the climatological mean. On average, SST is increasing at a rate of 0.10° ± 0.01°C decade−1 since 1950. The warming appeared largest in the tropical Indian Ocean and smallest in the North Pacific. The deeper ocean continues to warm year after year. For the seventh consecutive year, global annual mean sea level became the highest in the 26-year record, rising to 81 mm above the 1993 average. As anticipated in a warming climate, the hydrological cycle over the ocean is accelerating: dry regions are becoming drier and wet regions rainier. Closer to the equator, 95 named tropical storms were observed during 2018, well above the 1981–2010 average of 82. Eleven tropical cyclones reached Saffir–Simpson scale Category 5 intensity. North Atlantic Major Hurricane Michael’s landfall intensity of 140 kt was the fourth strongest for any continental U.S. hurricane landfall in the 168-year record. Michael caused more than 30 fatalities and $25 billion (U.S. dollars) in damages. In the western North Pacific, Super Typhoon Mangkhut led to 160 fatalities and$6 billion (U.S. dollars) in damages across the Philippines, Hong Kong, Macau, mainland China, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Tropical Storm Son-Tinh was responsible for 170 fatalities in Vietnam and Laos. Nearly all the islands of Micronesia experienced at least moderate impacts from various tropical cyclones. Across land, many areas around the globe received copious precipitation, notable at different time scales. Rodrigues and Réunion Island near southern Africa each reported their third wettest year on record. In Hawaii, 1262 mm precipitation at Waipā Gardens (Kauai) on 14–15 April set a new U.S. record for 24-h precipitation. In Brazil, the city of Belo Horizonte received nearly 75 mm of rain in just 20 minutes, nearly half its monthly average. Globally, fire activity during 2018 was the lowest since the start of the record in 1997, with a combined burned area of about 500 million hectares. This reinforced the long-term downward trend in fire emissions driven by changes in land use in frequently burning savannas. However, wildfires burned 3.5 million hectares across the United States, well above the 2000–10 average of 2.7 million hectares. Combined, U.S. wildfire damages for the 2017 and 2018 wildfire seasons exceeded $40 billion (U.S. dollars)

Effective engagement for climate services: Methods in practice in China

Engagement between providers and users is well acknowledged as one of the most fundamental activities in the provision, development and use of climate information for decision-making, or climate services. Yet there is little guidance in the literature on the most effective methods of engagement and demonstration of these methods. Here we present experiences of effective engagement between providers and users to understand the climate information requirements of decision makers in China; and to engage users more fully in the design, development, and delivery of climate services. We find value in the three methods of engagement explored here (passive engagement, interactive group activities, focused relationships), and share insights for when it may be most appropriate to use each method. We also highlight the challenges associated with each method, and the barriers and enablers to successful engagement drawn from these experiences. We further suggest how these conclusions have a much wider relevance and may be used to inform planning of engagement activities in other contexts