Eco-experiential quality of urban forests : Combining ecological, restorative and aesthetic perspectives

In this thesis I combined perspectives from urban forest ecology, environmental psychology and empirical aesthetics to determine whether ecologically beneficial urban forest planning and management can also be experientially good. The thesis consists of four interrelated papers, three of which are empirical research papers and the fourth a theoretical review article. All empirical work was performed in boreal forests in Helsinki, the capital of Finland. In the ecological part of the thesis I concentrated on studying planning and management options that contribute to the ecological quality of urban forests, especially tree regeneration and biodiversity, as well as the vitality of native forest species. Previous studies have shown that urbanization, increasing edge effects as a result of forest fragmentation, and intensive recreational use affect the ecological quality of forests negatively. These negative effects can be reduced by keeping forest patches large enough to provide habitats for forest species, and maintaining the forest edge vegetation dense and multilayered to reduce edge effects. Furthermore, leaving natural barriers, e.g. decaying logs, on the forest floor to guide people's movement and to restrict intensive trampling, are likely to be ecologically sound options. In the first empirical paper, I introduced a new ecological forest management option called sheltering group . It is a thicket of saplings occurring in forests that suffer from heavy wear, which can be used as a barrier against trampling to provide safe regeneration microsites for other saplings and forest vegetation. Ecological forest management options may not always be favored in urban forest planning and management because they are generally thought to affect people s recreational, e.g. restorative and aesthetic, experiences negatively. In this thesis I examined whether this assumption is supported when people are taken into forests and their multisensory experiences investigated on-site. In two empirical papers I examined, using survey techniques, how closure of view to the urban matrix from the forest interior, which indicates dense edge vegetation minimizing ecological edge effects, affects the restorative experiences of residents, and do ecologically beneficial decaying logs on the forest floor affect aesthetic experiences of forest visitors. I showed that restorative experiences were better in forest interiors with closed views to the urban matrix than at the edges or edge zones with open or semi-closed views. Furthermore, decaying logs did not, in general, affect the aesthetic experiences of people in urban forests, and logs were well accepted by urban forest visitors. My results indicate that at least these ecological forest management options enhance or maintain experiential qualities of the studied urban forests. In this thesis my aim was also to clarify concepts related to restorative and aesthetic experiences to better determine, assess and measure the experiential quality of green spaces in the future. In the fourth paper I concentrated on operationalizing aesthetic experiences and explored, through a literature review, what is a multisensory aesthetic experience in natural or semi-natural environments, and what dimensions it consists of. I concluded that aesthetic experience in natural environments is not the same thing as general preference and it is more than scenic beauty. I also suggested that aesthetic experiences consist of at least the following dimensions perceived in the environment: coherence reflecting care and congruence of the environment, complexity reflecting diversity and mystery, multisensory beauty, as well as sublimity. All these dimensions should be taken into account when assessing the aesthetic quality of green spaces. I also provided recommendations for pluralistic planning and management aiming at eco-experientially good quality urban forests.Kaupunkimetsät ovat tärkeitä paitsi ekologisesti myös virkistyksellisesti, mutta aina ei ole päivän selvää, voiko ekologista ja virkistyksellistä laatua edistää samanaikaisesti. Ekologisesti hyvät ratkaisut, esimerkiksi tiheä puusto tai lahopuu herättävät metsänhoidon suunnittelussa ajoittain kiivaitakin keskusteluja puolesta ja vastaan. Tässä väitöskirjassa selvitin, voiko kaupunkimetsiä suunnitella ja hoitaa niin, että ne olisivat sekä ekologisesti että kokemuksellisesti laadukkaita. Kaupungistumisen on todettu vaikuttavan metsien ekologiaan monin tavoin, mutta vaikutuksia voi haluttaessa lieventää tietyin ratkaisuin. Esimerkiksi metsien pirstoutumisen seurauksena lisääntyvä reunavaikutus muuttaa metsäkasvillisuutta, mutta reunavaikutusta voi pienentää säilyttämällä metsälaikut tarpeeksi suurina tai pitämällä metsänreunan puusto tiheänä ja monikerroksisena. Asukasmäärän kasvaessa ulkoilusta johtuva tallaus usein lisääntyy ja paikoin metsän aluskasvillisuus voi kulua lähes olemattomiin. On ajateltu, että tätä kulumista voisi vähentää mm. jättämällä maahan kulkua ohjaavia esteitä, kuten puunrunkoja tai pieniä tiheikköjä. Väitöskirjani ensimmäisessä osassa esittelen uuden kulunohjauskeinon, suojatiheikön , joka on pienialainen rykelmä puiden taimia tai pieniä puita. Suojatiheiköistä näyttäisi olevan hyötyä etenkin erittäin tallatuissa kaupunkimetsissä, joissa ne antavat suojaa sekä suotuisan paikan taimille ja mahdollisesti myös muulle kasvillisuudelle uusiutua ja kasvaa suojassa ihmisten tallaukselta. Väitöskirjani seuraavissa osissa selvitin, voivatko tietyt ekologiset ratkaisut olla myös kokemuksellisesti hyviä. Tutkin kahta kokemustyyppiä: stressistä elpymistä ja esteettistä kokemusta. Koska halusin selvittää ihmisten moniaistisia kokemuksia, kyselytutkimukset tehtiin paikan päällä kaupunkimetsissä, joissa virkistyskokemukset todellisuudessakin tapahtuvat. Ensiksi osoitin, että vastaajien kokema elpyminen oli merkittävästi parempi metsien sisäosissa, missä metsäkasvillisuus peitti näkymän kaupunkiympäristöön, kuin metsän reunalla tai lähellä reunaa, mistä näkymä kaupunkiympäristöön oli avoin tai puoliavoin. Seuraavassa osatutkimuksessa puolestaan osoitin, että maahan jätetyt lahopuut eivät vaikuttaneet metsässä kävijöiden esteettisiin kokemuksiin, ja että asukkaat hyväksyivät lahopuun osana kaupunkimetsiä hyvin. Nämä tulokset viittaavat siihen, että tietyt ekologisesti hyvät metsänhoitotoimenpiteet metsänreunan jättäminen tiheäksi niin, että näkymä metsän sisältä kaupunkiympäristöön on suljettu, sekä ekologisesti hyödyllisten lahopuiden jättäminen maahan voivat olla myös kokemuksellisesti hyviä. Näkymä metsästä kaupunkiympäristöön sulkeutuu myös, jos kävijä pääsee tarpeeksi pitkälle metsän sisäosiin, kauaksi metsän reunasta, joten metsien kokemuksellista laatua voi ylläpitää myös pitämällä metsälaikut tarpeeksi suurina ja leveinä. Väitöskirjan viimeisessä osassa tarkastelin myös teoreettisesti, millaisia esteettiset kokemukset luontoympäristöissä voisivat olla ja mitä ulottuvuuksia tulisi ottaa huomioon viheralueiden kokemuksellista laatua tutkittaessa. Tämä tarkastelu osoitti, että ympäristön esteettisyydestä puhuttaessa eri alojen tutkijat puhuvat ristiin, ja käyttävät sekavaa käsitteistöä. Jotta voitaisiin ymmärtää, miten suunnitella esteettisesti laadukasta ympäristöä, pitäisi alkajaisiksi selkeyttää sitä, mitä esteettinen kokemus tarkoittaa, ja mistä se koostuu. Lisäksi totesin, että esteettisiä kokemuksia voi olla monenlaisia, ne ovat usein moniaistisia ja saattavat sisältää erilaisia ulottuvuuksia, kuten kokemus jostain ylevästä, tunne johdonmukaisuudesta, järjestyksen havaitseminen, ympäristön monipuolisuus, salaperäisyys sekä kauneus. Ympäristön kokemuksellista laatua arvioitaessa olisikin hyvä ottaa huomioon nämä erilaiset kokemuksen ulottuvuudet. Väitöskirjan tulokset vahvistavat myös näkemystä, jonka mukaan valokuvien näyttäminen vastaajille tutkimuksissa, joissa yritetään selvittää ympäristön esteettistä laatua, ei aina ole hyvä lähestymistapa. Tutkimukseen osallistuvia henkilöitä tulisi myös pyrkiä viemään paikan päälle luontoon tai saada muutoin eläytymään tutkimuskohteeseen moniaistisesti ja monipuolisesti

Do small green roofs have the possibility to offer recreational and experiential benefits in a dense urban area? : A case study in Helsinki, Finland

Growing and densifying cities set challenges for preserving and enhancing sufficient and good quality green urban environment. Rooftops offer vacant room for additional urban greening that may contribute to the well-being of people and the liveability of cities, but this potential lacks empirical support. In spite of the fact that even small green spaces produce, for example restorative experiences, the literature concerning the experiential and recreational benefits of green roofs is still scarce. To identify the experiential potential of a small urban green roof we explored restorative and other experiences of 178 people visiting a sparsely vegetated green roof in the centre of Helsinki, Finland, using a questionnaire. We showed that the studied green roof provided restorative and other positive experiences to the visitors. The level of perceived restorativeness was relatively high. In addition, the results revealed multiple perceived qualities that reflected visual as well as other sensory experiences, beauty, suitability of the place for oneself and the urban context, nature, desire to explore the place and interestedness, positive excitement, and safety. Furthermore, answers to the open questions revealed a wide range of other observations and feelings, such as peace, joy, excitement and hope. Our study indicates that even a small and rather ascetic accessible green roof has potential to offer a moment of respite in the middle of urban everyday hassle, thus implying that these kinds of solutions may allow for a pinch of beneficial green in places where more diverse and lusher solutions are not possible due to, e.g. the load capacity of a roofGrowing and densifying cities set challenges for preserving and enhancing sufficient and good quality green urban environment. Rooftops offer vacant room for additional urban greening that may contribute to the well-being of people and the liveability of cities, but this potential lacks empirical support. In spite of the fact that even small green spaces produce, for example restorative experiences, the literature concerning the experiential and recreational benefits of green roofs is still scarce. To identify the experiential potential of a small urban green roof we explored restorative and other experiences of 178 people visiting a sparsely vegetated green roof in the centre of Helsinki, Finland, using a questionnaire. We showed that the studied green roof provided restorative and other positive experiences to the visitors. The level of perceived restorativeness was relatively high. In addition, the results revealed multiple perceived qualities that reflected visual as well as other sensory experiences, beauty, suitability of the place for oneself and the urban context, nature, desire to explore the place and interestedness, positive excitement, and safety. Furthermore, answers to the open questions revealed a wide range of other observations and feelings, such as peace, joy, excitement and hope. Our study indicates that even a small and rather ascetic accessible green roof has potential to offer a moment of respite in the middle of urban everyday hassle, thus implying that these kinds of solutions may allow for a pinch of beneficial green in places where more diverse and lusher solutions are not possible due to, e.g. the load capacity of a roofPeer reviewe

Neo-spaces for urban livability? Urbanites' versatile mental images of green roofs in the Helsinki metropolitan area, Finland

Within the context of enhancing sustainable and livable urban environments, one aim is to establish multifunctional green infrastructure (GI). We argue that in order to successfully plan and manage the development of GI, an inclusive and future-oriented stance concerning the needs and expectations of urbanites is required. By using green roofs as an example, the aim of this paper was to offer insights into how people envisage novel GI in urban environments and to reveal the scope of meanings and values people attach to these kinds of green infrastructure. We present results based on 149 stories collected with the method of empathy-based stories. Respondents were asked to use their imagination to produce mental images of not-yet-existing green roofs in different urban situations. Our results reflect a rich set of dimensions of green roofs that the respondents vividly imagined. Green roofs may contribute to the livability of urban areas in multiple ways, such as strengthening social cohesion, providing space for everyday renewal and restoration, offering interesting sceneries and multisensory experiences, softening the hard cityscape, showing ephemeral events and making experiences of "height" possible, as well as increasing the "contact with nature" experiences for residents, e.g. through biodiverse nature in the middle of built environments. Furthermore, the need for local, customized solutions that offer different benefits and experiences was expressed. Using both qualitative and quantitative analyses, we idealized four green roof meta-types for understanding the diverse expectations people may have for green roofs in urban area: Urban farm, Oasis, Urban hill and Meadow. Based on our results we suggest that comprehensive experiences and needs of people should be taken into account when designing urban green roofs or urban green in general not only, e.g. visual pleasure. Also, site- and user-specific solutions should be considered instead of generally applied ones. Our results offer tools for, e.g. urban planners to understand the value of diverse green roof solutions to the user. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.Peer reviewe

Perceived Environmental Aesthetic Qualities Scale (PEAQS) : A self-report tool for the evaluation of green-blue spaces

Aesthetic qualifies of urban green and blue spaces have received considerable attention in scientific literature but are operationalized in multiple ways and lack clear assessment and measurement techniques. To fill in this gap, we developed a Perceived Environmental Aesthetic Qualifies Scale (PEAQS). Based on previous literature both in philosophy and empirical sciences we created a questionnaire with 36 statements and three open questions focusing on the perceived aesthetic qualifies of environments. This questionnaire was used to sample 331 respondents in three sites different in their level of naturalness, human intervention and design: a natural-like but managed urban forest, a partly human-made and intensively managed bay-park and a completely human-made green roof. These sites were selected to represent a variety of urban green and blue infrastructure common in cities. The results suggest a scale that consists of 23 statements and five factors that reflect perceived aesthetic qualifies of urban green spaces: Harmony, Mystery, Multisensority & Nature, Visual Spaciousness and Visual Diversity, and Sublimity. We give guidelines for further development and testing of the scale in order to prove its potential to develop the field of environmental aesthetics and to demonstrate its usefulness for adaptive, evidence-based urban planning and design.Peer reviewe

Restoration in a Virtual Reality Forest Environment

The focus in this research was on the effects of restorative experiences in an immersive virtual reality (VR) forest environment. For 5 min one hundred participants used a VR application depicting a forest via a head-mounted display and headphones. The extent of the restorative effect on the participants was measured in terms of perceived restorative outcomes, vitality, and mood before and after using the VR application. After finding out that using the VR application improved the perceived restoration outcomes, vitality and mood of the participants, the perceived restoration of the VR environment was compared with experiences in physical forests. According to the results, the VR environment was generally perceived as restorative as the physical forest environments, and more fascinating and coherent. The results imply that VR technology could have an effective restorative function during a school or work day when there is no access to highly restorative natural environments. Knowledge about the restorative qualities of physical and virtual natural environments could be applied to develop both the virtual and physical environments that are currently available and where people have access to.Peer reviewe

Citizens' evaluation of the importance of ecosystem services

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