“Between a rock and a hard place“: Teachers’ experience of professional autonomy for inclusive practice with 14-16 year old students at compulsory school level in Iceland

Hér er fjallað um reynslu kennara á unglingastigi grunnskóla af því að vinna í anda stefnu um skóla án aðgreiningar. Tekin voru eigindleg viðtöl við sex umsjónarkennara í jafnmörgum grunnskólum í fjórum bæjarfélögum á höfuðborgarsvæðinu. Niðurstöður leiddu í ljós að þeir upplifðu miklar skorður af völdum: a) formgerðar grunnskólans á efri stigum sem þeim þótti hafa tekið mun minni breytingum í átt að skóla án aðgreiningar en yngri stig grunnskólans, b) tiltekinna menntastrauma og stefna sem þeim fannst vinna gegn skóla án aðgreiningar og loks c) skorts á faglegum stuðningi í takt við starfsaðstæður þeirra. Það var skoðun kennaranna að jaðarsetning sumra nemenda yrði meira afgerandi eftir því sem á skólagönguna liði. Kennararnir upplifðu sig oft og tíðum eins og milli steins og sleggju þar sem þeim væri gert erfitt um vik að tengja hlutverk sitt sem umsjónarkennarar þekkingu og björgum sem þeir hefðu yfir að ráða. Hjá öllum viðmælendunum kom fram að faglegt sjálfstæði hefði rýrnað og björgum fækkað á síðustu árum, sem rekja mætti til aukinnar markaðs- og stjórnunarvæðingar, og lítið svigrúm gæfist fyrir vangaveltur um siðferðilegt hlutverk og inntak skólans. Kennurunum varð tíðrætt um mikilvægi þess að þeir væru hafðir með í ráðum í hvers kyns stefnumótun í kennslu.Inclusive education is based on core values of human rights, democracy and equality. The research question is inspired by the authors’ experience of how some students move silently closer to the social margins as they draw nearer to the end of compulsory education in spite of the teacher’s full intention and effort that all students feel equally valued and active participants from beginning until the end of compulsory school. In the Icelandic Compulsory Education Act (Lög um grunnskóla nr. 91/2008) it is stated that any form of alienation is rejected and the aim is to protect students who for any reasons are socially vulnerable or in danger of not gaining full access to everyday school life. The aim of this research is to explore teachers’ experience of inclusive teaching of students in secondary classroom settings (14-16 year-old). The macro structures, as well as policy and institutional features are the main focus, and how these shape and influence teachers’ professional autonomy, ideals and values. This is a qualitative interview study. Six semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers in six compulsory schools in four different municipalities which were all part of the metropolitan area of Reykjavík. The schools were located in socially different areas of the Reykjavík metropolitan area. The socio-cultural classroom situation was different for each of the teachers as can be gathered from their narratives. All the teachers shared a long-term professional experience (15 years or more), as well as being positive and proactive towards inclusive education. Results indicate that teachers feel openness to schooling practices and opportunities for inclusivity diminish closer to the end of compulsory schooling. The teachers sometimes felt stuck between a rock and a hard place as it was made difficult for them to balance their role between being a classroom teacher and their working conditions and resources. All participants felt that formal access to resources was delivered and defined by other professions, as for example how much and what kind of assistance or support is needed. Teachers’ ideas of democracy in education with active student participation were clearly defined but had no resonance with the individualization that emphasizes competition and, as a result, often works against the ideology of the inclusive school and its educational principles. Values that do not pertain to rules of the market are marginalized and there is little space for questions on the content and ethical value of schools, teachers and other influences on school work. Teachers mentioned the importance of their direct participation in policy making or agenda pertaining to teaching. There was a clear call for increased flexibility in the school framework, smaller classes and more emphasis on offering art and craftPeer Reviewe

A millennium of north-east Atlantic cod juvenile growth trajectories inferred from archaeological otoliths

Archaeological excavations of historical fishing sites across the North Atlantic have recovered high quantities of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) bones. In the current study we use Atlantic cod otoliths from archaeological excavations of a historical fishing sites in north-west Iceland, dated to AD 970 –AD 1910 to examine historical growth trajectories of cod. No large scale growth variations or shifts in growth patterns were observed in the current chronologies, supporting the stability of historical Atlantic cod growth trajectories. The most significant variation in growth patterns was consistent with those that have been observed in recent times, for example, reduced early juvenile growth during periods of colder ocean temperature. The current results represent a high resolution chronological record of north-east Atlantic cod growth, greatly increasing the prior temporal range of such data, thereby providing a valuable baseline for a broad range of studies on Atlantic cod growth.This study was partly funded by a grant to GÁÓ from the Icelandic Research Fund (152226). Other cost was covered by the University of Iceland and the Marine Research Institute through salaries of the authors. There was no additional external funding received for this study. The funders had no role in the subsequent work.Peer Reviewe

Interactions between boldness, foraging performance and behavioural plasticity across social contexts

Boldness, the tendency to be explorative, risk prone and proactive, often varies consistently between individuals. An individual’s position on the boldness–shyness continuum has many implications. Bold individuals may outperform shyer conspecifics during foraging as they cover more ground, accumulate information more rapidly and make more frequent food discoveries. Individual variation in boldness may also affect behavioural plasticity across environmental contexts, as the time to process new information, the ability to locate and memorise resources and the time and ability to apply prior information in a novel context all differ between individuals. The primary aim of the current study was to examine plasticity in, and covariation between, boldness, foraging speed and foraging accuracy across social foraging contexts. We showed that the stickleback that were shyest when foraging alone became relatively boldest when foraging in a social context and also delayed their entry to a known food patch the most in the presence of conspecifics. These results support the assertion that shyer foragers are more reactive to social cues and add to current knowledge of how an individual’s position on the boldness–shyness continuum may correlate to foraging task performance and behavioural plasticity. We conclude that the correlation between boldness and behavioural plasticity may have broad relevance as the ability to adjust or retain behaviours in changing social environments could often have consequences for fitness.Peer ReviewedRitrýnt efn

A millennium of trophic stability inAtlantic cod (Gadus morhua): transition to a lower and converging trophic niche in modern times

Stable isotope analyses of zooarchaeological material can be used to examine ecological variability in exploited species at centennial to millennial scales. Climate change is a notable driver of marine ecosystem change, although historical fishing is also likely to have impacted past marine systems. Fishing removes the oldest and largest individuals and may thereby result in shorter trophic pathways and reduced niche width of predatory fish species. In the current study we examine the trophic niche of Atlantic cod, haddock and Atlantic wolffish, in the last millennium using δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen. We report a lower trophic level of Atlantic cod and haddock but higher level of wolffish in present times, following centuries at consistent and higher trophic levels of Atlantic cod. This results in a concurrent converging trophic niche of the demersal fish. We suggest that the current data set provides a valuable historical baseline facilitating interpretation of current variability in the trophic ecology of northern demersal fish.publishedVersio

In vitro analysis of expression vectors for DNA vaccination of horses: the effect of a Kozak sequence

One of the prerequisite for developing DNA vaccines for horses are vectors that are efficiently expressed in horse cells

Change in Atlantic cod migrations and adaptability of early land-based fishers to severe climate variation in the North Atlantic

Publisher's version (útgefin grein)We use biochemical, biological, archaeological, and historical analysis to examine relationships between Atlantic cod migration, sea temperature, and shifts in the distribution and occupancy of historical fishing sites in Iceland during the last millennium. Results support the hypothesis that the cooling climate of the North Atlantic during the period commonly referred to as the Little Ice Age coincided with changes in Atlantic cod migration patterns. Historical analysis shows a concomitant increase in reports of worsening Atlantic cod fishing and a severe decrease in domestic fishing, particularly in north Iceland. We conclude that Atlantic cod fisheries in Iceland originally thrived because of the proximity to cod migration routes. However, despite the mobility of local fishers, fluctuations in fish migrations, coupled with a harsher climate and increased competition for fishing grounds, resulted in a stagnation that lasted until the eventual modernization of the fishery in the mid-nineteenth century.We would like to acknowledge Tom McGovern for his conceptualinput in developing this work and Ben Fitzhugh, David Orton,and James Barrett for useful comments on this article. We thank Lei-fur Þór Þorvaldsson, GylfiBjörn Helgason, Zuhaitz Akizu, MarionDurand, Kjartan Ari Theoódórsson, Benedikt Kári Theódórsson,and Emma Lilja Ragnarsdóttir forfield assistance and Einar PéturJónsson for his work on the otolith shape assignment. Work funded by Icelandic center for research (RANNÍS) 152226Peer reviewe

Lack of population genetic structure of lumpfish along the Norwegian coast: A reappraisal based on EST-STRs analyses

Lumpfish is now the single most important cleaner fish species to date and there is an extensive lumpfish translocation along the Norwegian coast. A reliable baseline information about the population genetic structure of lumpfish is a prerequisite for an optimal managing of the species to minimize possible genetic translocation and avoid possible hybridisation and introgression with local populations. The current study is a follow up of the study of Jónsdóttir et al. (2018) using expressed sequence tag-short tandem repeats (EST-STRs) markers. Samples (N = 291) were analysed from six sample locations along the Norwegian coastline from south to north, with additional 18 samples of first-generation (from wild fish) reared fish from a fish farm outside Tromsø (North Norway). Present findings show a lack of population differentiation among lumpfish sampling population along the Norwegian coast using EST-STRs, which is in accordance with the findings of Jónsdóttir et al. (2018) where genomic STRs (g-STRs) were analysed. Present findings indicate that should translocated lumpfish escape from salmon sea pens in Norway, this will probably have little impact on the genetic composition of the local lumpfish population.publishedVersio

Evidence of unidirectional hybridization and second‐generation adult hybrid between the two largest animals on Earth, the fin and blue whales

Biodiversity in the oceans has dramatically declined since the beginning of the industrial era, with accelerated loss of marine biodiversity impairing the ocean's capacity to maintain vital ecosystem services. A few organisms epitomize the damaging and long‐lasting effects of anthropogenic exploitation: some whale species, for instance, were brought to the brink of extinction, with their population sizes reduced to such low levels that may have cause a significant disruption to their reproductive dynamics and facilitated hybridization events. The incidence of hybridization is nevertheless believed to be rare and very little information exist on its directionality. Here, using genetic markers, we show that all but one whale hybrid sample collected in Icelandic waters originated from the successful mating of male fin whale and female blue whale, thus suggesting unidirectional hybridization. We also demonstrate for the first time the existence of a second‐generation adult (male) hybrid resulting from a backcross between a female hybrid and a pure male fin whale. The incidence of hybridization events between fin and blue whales is likely underestimated and the observed unidirectional hybridization (for F1 and F2 hybrids) is likely to induce a reproductive loss in blue whale, which may represent an additional challenge to its recovery in the Atlantic Ocean compared to other rorquals

Archaeological sites as Distributed Long-term Observing Networks of the Past (DONOP)

The authors would also like to acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation, specifically the Arctic Social Sciences Program, and RANNIS (The Icelandic Center for Research).Archaeological records provide a unique source of direct data on long-term human-environment interactions and samples of ecosystems affected by differing degrees of human impact. Distributed long-term datasets from archaeological sites provide a significant contribution to establish local, regional, and continental-scale environmental baselines and can be used to understand the implications of human decision-making and its impacts on the environment and the resources it provides for human use. Deeper temporal environmental baselines are essential for resource and environmental managers to restore biodiversity and build resilience in depleted ecosystems. Human actions are likely to have impacts that reorganize ecosystem structures by reducing diversity through processes such as niche construction. This makes data from archaeological sites key assets for the management of contemporary and future climate change scenarios because they combine information about human behavior, environmental baselines, and biological systems. Sites of this kind collectively form Distributed Long-term Observing Networks of the Past (DONOP), allowing human behavior and environmental impacts to be assessed over space and time. Behavioral perspectives are gained from direct evidence of human actions in response to environmental opportunities and change. Baseline perspectives are gained from data on species, landforms, and ecology over timescales that long predate our typically recent datasets that only record systems already disturbed by people. And biological perspectives can provide essential data for modern managers wanting to understand and utilize past diversity (i.e., trophic and/or genetic) as a way of revealing, and potentially correcting, weaknesses in our contemporary wild and domestic animal populations.PostprintPeer reviewe

„Milli steins og sleggju“ : hindranir sem standa í vegi fyrir fullri þátttöku allra nemenda í efstu bekkjum grunnskóla að mati kennara

Skóli án aðgreiningar byggir skólastarf á grunngildum um mannréttindi, lýðræði og jafnrétti. Kveikjan að rannsókninni byggist á reynslu höfundar af því hvernig sumir nemendur þokast meira og meira út á jaðarinn eftir því sem á grunnskólagönguna líður þrátt fyrir vilja kennara til að allir nemendur upplifi sig fullgilda og virka þátttakendur grunnskólann á enda. Skóli án aðgreiningar hafnar hvers kyns útilokun og tekur sérstaklega til þeirra hópa sem af einhverjum ástæðum geta átt undir högg að sækja eða eiga það á hættu að fá ekki fulla hlutdeild í skólalífinu. Markmið þessarar rannsóknar var að varpa ljósi á þær hindranir sem að mati kennara verða á vegi þeirra í efstu bekkjum grunnskólans til að vinna í þessum anda og þá krafta sem móta og hafa áhrif á faglegt sjálfstæði kennara. Einnig voru hugmyndir kennara að leiðum, skoðaðar út frá hugmyndum Dewey um lýðræðislegt námssamfélag, þar sem viðurkenning á margbreytileika er höfð að leiðarljósi í kennslu í umhverfi sem stuðlar að inngildingu (e. inclusion). Rannsóknin er eigindleg, tekin voru viðtöl við sex umsjónarkennara í jafnmörgum grunnskólum í fjórum bæjarfélögum á höfuðborgarsvæðinu auk þess sem heimasíður skólanna voru skoðaðar. Niðurstöður leiddu í ljós þá skoðun kennara að námsvilji sumra nemenda og tækifæri til aukins þroska minnki eftir því sem á skólagönguna líður og jaðarsetning verður meira afgerandi fyrir suma nemendur. Kennararnir upplifðu sig oft og tíðum milli steins og sleggju þar sem þeim var gert erfitt um vik að tengja hlutverk sitt sem umsjónarkennari, við þá þekkingu og bjargir sem þeir hafa yfir að ráða. Hjá öllum viðmælendunum kom fram að fagleg bjargráð markist af hugmyndum annarra sérfræðistétta um hvar þurfi að aðstoða kennara og hvernig. Hugmyndir kennaranna um lýðræðislegt námssamfélag, með virkri þátttöku allra nemenda var skýr en rímar ekki alls kostar við einstaklingsvæðingu þar sem lögð er áhersla á samkeppni og vinnur oft gegn hugmyndum um skóla án aðgreiningar. Gildi sem ekki falla að markaðslögmálum eru jaðarsett og lítið svigrúm gefst fyrir vangaveltur um inntak og siðferðilegt hlutverk skóla, kennara og annarra þátta sem hafa áhrif á skólastarfið. Kennurum var tíðrætt um mikilvægi þess að þeir séu hafðir með í ráðum í hvers kyns stefnumótun er viðkemur kennslu. Aukinn sveigjanleiki í umgjörð skólans, fámennari bekkir, og meiri áhersla á list- og verkgreinar var skýr vilji þeirra allra. Kennararnir fundu til vanmáttar og upplifðu sig valdalitla, jafnvel svo að fagmennsku þeirra væri ógnað. Menningarleg fjölbreytni er talsverð innan hvers skóla en einn skólinn var miklum mun einsleitari og jafnvel allur jaðarsettur að mati viðmælanda.Inclusive education is based on core values of human rights, democracy and equality. The research question is inspired by the authors experience on how some students move silently closer and closer to the social margins as it draws nearer to the end of compulsory education in spite of the teacher´s full intension and effort that all students feel equally valued and active participants from beginning until the end of compulsory education. In the conpulsary education act in Iceland it is stated that any form of allienation is rejected and the aim to protect students who for any reasons are socially vulnerable or are in danger of not getting full access to everyday school life. The aim of this research is to reveal the obstacles towards inclusivity that the teachers experience for their students in the upper compulsory classes and the powers that shape and influence teacher’s professional autonomytheir ideals and values. This is a qualitative interview study. Six semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers in six compulsory schools in four different municipalities which were all part of the Metropolitan area of Reykjavík. Results indicate that teacher’s feel that the openess to schooling practces and the opportunity for inclusivity diminishes when draws closer to the end of compulsory school. Marginalizing or exclusion became more evident for some students. The teachers sometimes felt stuck between a rock and a sledgehammer as it was made difficult for them to balance their role between being a classroom teacher and their working conditions and resources. All participants felt that resources are delivered and defined by other professions, as how much and which kind of assistance or support is needed. Teacher’s ideas of democracy in education with active student participation was clearly defined but has no resonance with the individualization that emphasizes competition and as a result often works against ideas on the inclusive school and education. Values that do not pertain to rules of the market are marginalized and there is little space for questions on the content and ethical value of schools, teachers and other influences on school work. Teachers often mentioned the importance that they themselves participate in policy making or agenda that pertains to teaching. There was a clear call for increased flexibility in the school framework, smaller classes and more emphasis on offering art and craft. Teachers felt powerless and even to the point they felt their professional autonomy was jeopardized. Cultural diversity is fairly vast in all of the schools but one of the schools had notably less variety than the other schools and participants felt the school in general was educating marginalized groups within society