A review of elliptical and disc galaxy structure, and modern scaling laws

A century ago, in 1911 and 1913, Plummer and then Reynolds introduced their models to describe the radial distribution of stars in `nebulae'. This article reviews the progress since then, providing both an historical perspective and a contemporary review of the stellar structure of bulges, discs and elliptical galaxies. The quantification of galaxy nuclei, such as central mass deficits and excess nuclear light, plus the structure of dark matter halos and cD galaxy envelopes, are discussed. Issues pertaining to spiral galaxies including dust, bulge-to-disc ratios, bulgeless galaxies, bars and the identification of pseudobulges are also reviewed. An array of modern scaling relations involving sizes, luminosities, surface brightnesses and stellar concentrations are presented, many of which are shown to be curved. These 'redshift zero' relations not only quantify the behavior and nature of galaxies in the Universe today, but are the modern benchmark for evolutionary studies of galaxies, whether based on observations, N-body-simulations or semi-analytical modelling. For example, it is shown that some of the recently discovered compact elliptical galaxies at 1.5 < z < 2.5 may be the bulges of modern disc galaxies.Comment: Condensed version (due to Contract) of an invited review article to appear in "Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems"(www.springer.com/astronomy/book/978-90-481-8818-5). 500+ references incl. many somewhat forgotten, pioneer papers. Original submission to Springer: 07-June-201

Iron Behaving Badly: Inappropriate Iron Chelation as a Major Contributor to the Aetiology of Vascular and Other Progressive Inflammatory and Degenerative Diseases

The production of peroxide and superoxide is an inevitable consequence of aerobic metabolism, and while these particular "reactive oxygen species" (ROSs) can exhibit a number of biological effects, they are not of themselves excessively reactive and thus they are not especially damaging at physiological concentrations. However, their reactions with poorly liganded iron species can lead to the catalytic production of the very reactive and dangerous hydroxyl radical, which is exceptionally damaging, and a major cause of chronic inflammation. We review the considerable and wide-ranging evidence for the involvement of this combination of (su)peroxide and poorly liganded iron in a large number of physiological and indeed pathological processes and inflammatory disorders, especially those involving the progressive degradation of cellular and organismal performance. These diseases share a great many similarities and thus might be considered to have a common cause (i.e. iron-catalysed free radical and especially hydroxyl radical generation). The studies reviewed include those focused on a series of cardiovascular, metabolic and neurological diseases, where iron can be found at the sites of plaques and lesions, as well as studies showing the significance of iron to aging and longevity. The effective chelation of iron by natural or synthetic ligands is thus of major physiological (and potentially therapeutic) importance. As systems properties, we need to recognise that physiological observables have multiple molecular causes, and studying them in isolation leads to inconsistent patterns of apparent causality when it is the simultaneous combination of multiple factors that is responsible. This explains, for instance, the decidedly mixed effects of antioxidants that have been observed, etc...Comment: 159 pages, including 9 Figs and 2184 reference

Five insights from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 provides a rules-based synthesis of the available evidence on levels and trends in health outcomes, a diverse set of risk factors, and health system responses. GBD 2019 covered 204 countries and territories, as well as first administrative level disaggregations for 22 countries, from 1990 to 2019. Because GBD is highly standardised and comprehensive, spanning both fatal and non-fatal outcomes, and uses a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive list of hierarchical disease and injury causes, the study provides a powerful basis for detailed and broad insights on global health trends and emerging challenges. GBD 2019 incorporates data from 281 586 sources and provides more than 3.5 billion estimates of health outcome and health system measures of interest for global, national, and subnational policy dialogue. All GBD estimates are publicly available and adhere to the Guidelines on Accurate and Transparent Health Estimate Reporting. From this vast amount of information, five key insights that are important for health, social, and economic development strategies have been distilled. These insights are subject to the many limitations outlined in each of the component GBD capstone papers.Peer reviewe

The Gene Pool Concept Applied to Crop Wild Relatives: An Evolutionary Perspective

Crop wild relatives (CWR) can provide important resources for the genetic improvement of cultivated species. Because crops are often related to many wild species and because exploration of CWR for useful traits can take many years and substantial resources, the categorization of CWR based on a comprehensive assessment of their potential for use is an important knowledge foundation for breeding programs. The initial approach for categorizing CWR was based on crossing studies to empirically establish which species were interfertile with the crop. The foundational concept of distinct gene pools published almost 50 years ago was developed from these observations. However, the task of experimentally assessing all potential CWR proved too vast; therefore, proxies based on phylogenetic and other advanced scientific information have been explored. A current major approach to categorize CWR aims to comprehensively synthesize experimental data, taxonomic information, and phylogenetic studies. This approach very often ends up relying not only on the synthesis of data but also intuition and expert opinion and is therefore difficult to apply widely in a reproducible manner. Here, we explore the potential for a stronger standardization of the categorization method, with focus on evolutionary relationships among species combined with information on patterns of interfertility between species. Evolutionary relationships can be revealed with increasing resolution via next-generation sequencing, through the application of the multispecies coalescent model and using focused analyses on species discovery and delimitation that bridge population genetics and phylogenetics fields. Evolutionary studies of reproductive isolation can inform the understanding of patterns of interfertility in plants. For CWR, prezygotic postpollination reproductive barriers and intrinsic postzygotic barriers are the most important factors and determine the probability of producing viable and fertile offspring. To further the assessment of CWR for use in plant breeding, we present observed and predicted gene pool indices. The observed index quantifies patterns of interfertility based on fertilization success, seed production, offspring viability, and hybrid fertility. The predicted gene pool index requires further development of the understanding of quantitative and qualitative relationships between reproductive barriers, measures of genetic relatedness, and other relevant characteristics for crops and their wild relatives

Síndrome do túnel do carpo: aspectos atuais Carpal tunnel syndrome: present approaches

Baseado na experiência eletrofisiológica do autor em 668 pacientes e em dados de literatura, foi realizada revisão sobre síndrome do túnel do carpo (STC) analisando aspectos clínico-epidemiológicos e de conducão nervosa. O nervo mediano sofre desmielinização nodal ou segmentar por compressão no túnel do carpo, 3-4 cm distal à prega do punho. O complexo sintomátíco inclui dormência e fomigamento noturno nas mãos, frequentemente bilateral e mais comum em mulheres na faixa etária de 40-60 anos. São descritos casos familiares em que a herança poderia determinar ligamento transverso do carpo mais espesso. Fatores antropomórficos podem também representar risco adicional porém com pouca significância estatística. Ressonância magnética pode ser útil em casos selecionados e atípicos. São discutidos aspectos do tratamento conservador e controvérsias do tratamento cirúrgico. Na condução nervosa clássica observa-se aumento de latência distal sensitiva (segmentar) e motora do nervo mediano. Métodos adicionais de sensibilização incluem latência palma-punho do mediano (misto), diferença de latência palma-punho mediano/ulnar (misto), diferença de latência mediano/radial e mediano/ulnar (sensitivo), técnica da centimetragem punho-palma com registro no II/III dedos e diferença mediano/ulnar com registro lumbrical/interósseo (motor).<br>A clinical, epidemiological and nerve conduction studies report on carpal tunnel syndrome was done after electrophysiological author's experience on 668 cases and literature review. The median nerve underwent focal (nodal) or segmental demyelination after compression on carpal tunnel, 3-4 distal to wrist fold. The symptomatic complex includes nocturnal hands numbness and paraesthesia, mostly bilateral and between 40-60 years old. Familial cases are described and the gene could encode thick transverse carpal ligament. Anthropomorphic findings could also bring about an additional risk, but with low significance. Magnetic resonance could be a useful tool for selected atypical cases. Conservative treatment and controversies on surgery timing are discussed. Classical conduction studies on median nerve reveal a prolonged distal segmental sensory latency and also on distal motor latency. Increasing sensitivity may be reach using additional methods such as, median mixed mid-palm latency, comparative mid-palm latency median/ulnar, comparative sensory latency median/radial and median/ulnar, inching method from wrist to palm recording on index/middle finger and comparative motor median/ulnar recording on lumbrical/interosseous muscle