Sage Tea Drinking Improves Lipid Profile and Antioxidant Defences in Humans

Salvia officinalis (common sage) is a plant with antidiabetic properties. A pilot trial (non-randomized crossover trial) with six healthy female volunteers (aged 40–50) was designed to evaluate the beneficial properties of sage tea consumption on blood glucose regulation, lipid profile and transaminase activity in humans. Effects of sage consumption on erythrocytes’ SOD and CAT activities and on Hsp70 expression in lymphocytes were also evaluated. Four weeks sage tea treatment had no effects on plasma glucose. An improvement in lipid profile was observed with lower plasma LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol levels as well as higher plasma HDL cholesterol levels during and two weeks after treatment. Sage tea also increased lymphocyte Hsp70 expression and erythrocyte SOD and CAT activities. No hepatotoxic effects or other adverse effects were observed

The SARS-Unique Domain (SUD) of SARS Coronavirus Contains Two Macrodomains That Bind G-Quadruplexes

Since the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003, the three-dimensional structures of several of the replicase/transcriptase components of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), the non-structural proteins (Nsps), have been determined. However, within the large Nsp3 (1922 amino-acid residues), the structure and function of the so-called SARS-unique domain (SUD) have remained elusive. SUD occurs only in SARS-CoV and the highly related viruses found in certain bats, but is absent from all other coronaviruses. Therefore, it has been speculated that it may be involved in the extreme pathogenicity of SARS-CoV, compared to other coronaviruses, most of which cause only mild infections in humans. In order to help elucidate the function of the SUD, we have determined crystal structures of fragment 389–652 (“SUDcore”) of Nsp3, which comprises 264 of the 338 residues of the domain. Both the monoclinic and triclinic crystal forms (2.2 and 2.8 Å resolution, respectively) revealed that SUDcore forms a homodimer. Each monomer consists of two subdomains, SUD-N and SUD-M, with a macrodomain fold similar to the SARS-CoV X-domain. However, in contrast to the latter, SUD fails to bind ADP-ribose, as determined by zone-interference gel electrophoresis. Instead, the entire SUDcore as well as its individual subdomains interact with oligonucleotides known to form G-quadruplexes. This includes oligodeoxy- as well as oligoribonucleotides. Mutations of selected lysine residues on the surface of the SUD-N subdomain lead to reduction of G-quadruplex binding, whereas mutations in the SUD-M subdomain abolish it. As there is no evidence for Nsp3 entering the nucleus of the host cell, the SARS-CoV genomic RNA or host-cell mRNA containing long G-stretches may be targets of SUD. The SARS-CoV genome is devoid of G-stretches longer than 5–6 nucleotides, but more extended G-stretches are found in the 3′-nontranslated regions of mRNAs coding for certain host-cell proteins involved in apoptosis or signal transduction, and have been shown to bind to SUD in vitro. Therefore, SUD may be involved in controlling the host cell's response to the viral infection. Possible interference with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-like domains is also discussed

High-Resolution Functional Mapping of the Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Genome by Insertional Mutagenesis and Massively Parallel Sequencing

We have developed a high-resolution genomic mapping technique that combines transposon-mediated insertional mutagenesis with either capillary electrophoresis or massively parallel sequencing to identify functionally important regions of the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) genome. We initially used a capillary electrophoresis method to gain insight into the role of the VEEV nonstructural protein 3 (nsP3) in viral replication. We identified several regions in nsP3 that are intolerant to small (15 bp) insertions, and thus are presumably functionally important. We also identified nine separate regions in nsP3 that will tolerate small insertions at low temperatures (30°C), but not at higher temperatures (37°C, and 40°C). Because we found this method to be extremely effective at identifying temperature sensitive (ts) mutations, but limited by capillary electrophoresis capacity, we replaced the capillary electrophoresis with massively parallel sequencing and used the improved method to generate a functional map of the entire VEEV genome. We identified several hundred potential ts mutations throughout the genome and we validated several of the mutations in nsP2, nsP3, E3, E2, E1 and capsid using single-cycle growth curve experiments with virus generated through reverse genetics. We further demonstrated that two of the nsP3 ts mutants were attenuated for virulence in mice but could elicit protective immunity against challenge with wild-type VEEV. The recombinant ts mutants will be valuable tools for further studies of VEEV replication and virulence. Moreover, the method that we developed is applicable for generating such tools for any virus with a robust reverse genetics system

Genome-Wide Analysis of Protein-Protein Interactions and Involvement of Viral Proteins in SARS-CoV Replication

Analyses of viral protein-protein interactions are an important step to understand viral protein functions and their underlying molecular mechanisms. In this study, we adopted a mammalian two-hybrid system to screen the genome-wide intraviral protein-protein interactions of SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and therefrom revealed a number of novel interactions which could be partly confirmed by in vitro biochemical assays. Three pairs of the interactions identified were detected in both directions: non-structural protein (nsp) 10 and nsp14, nsp10 and nsp16, and nsp7 and nsp8. The interactions between the multifunctional nsp10 and nsp14 or nsp16, which are the unique proteins found in the members of Nidovirales with large RNA genomes including coronaviruses and toroviruses, may have important implication for the mechanisms of replication/transcription complex assembly and functions of these viruses. Using a SARS-CoV replicon expressing a luciferase reporter under the control of a transcription regulating sequence, it has been shown that several viral proteins (N, X and SUD domains of nsp3, and nsp12) provided in trans stimulated the replicon reporter activity, indicating that these proteins may regulate coronavirus replication and transcription. Collectively, our findings provide a basis and platform for further characterization of the functions and mechanisms of coronavirus proteins

DAF-21/Hsp90 is required for C. elegans longevity by ensuring DAF-16/FOXO isoform A function

The FOXO transcription factor family is a conserved regulator of longevity and the downstream target of insulin/insulin-like signaling. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the FOXO ortholog DAF-16A and D/F isoforms extend lifespan in daf-2 insulin-like receptor mutants. Here we identify the DAF-21/Hsp90 chaperone as a longevity regulator. We find that reducing DAF-21 capacity by daf-21(RNAi) initiated either at the beginning or at the end of larval development shortens wild-type lifespan. daf-21 knockdown employed from the beginning of larval development also decreases longevity of daf-2 mutant and daf-2 silenced nematodes. daf-16 loss-of-function mitigates the lifespan shortening effect of daf-21 silencing. We demonstrate that DAF-21 specifically promotes daf-2 and heat-shock induced nuclear translocation of DAF-16A as well as the induction of DAF-16A-specific mRNAs, without affecting DAF-16D/F localization and transcriptional function. DAF-21 is dispensable for the stability and nuclear import of DAF-16A, excluding a chaperone-client interaction and suggesting that DAF-21 regulates DAF-16A activation upstream of its cellular traffic. Finally, we show a selective requirement for DAF-21 to extend lifespan of DAF-16A, but not DAF-16D/F, transgenic daf-2 mutant strains. Our findings indicate a spatiotemporal determination of multiple DAF-21 roles in fertility, development and longevity and reveal an isoform-specific regulation of DAF-16 activity. © 2018, The Author(s)

Enzymatic activities of coronaviral non-structural protein 3

Coronaviren können sowohl den Menschen als auch zahlreiche Tierspezies infizieren und verursachen vor allem respiratorische und enterale Erkrankungen. Die Replikation des etwa 27-32 kb großen, einzelsträngigen RNA-Genoms positiver Polarität und die Synthese zahlreicher subgenomischer RNAs erfolgt durch einen Multi-Enzym-Komplex, der bis zu 16 virale nichtstrukturelle Proteine (nsp) und einige zelluläre Proteine umfaßt. Die einzelnen nichtstrukturellen Proteine werden durch proteolytische Prozessierung der vom Replikasegen kodierten Vorläufer-Polyproteine (pp1a/pp1ab) unter Beteiligung viraler Proteasen freigesetzt. Das größte replikative Protein, nsp3, befindet sich im aminoterminalen Bereich der Polyproteine pp1a/pp1ab. Trotz des geringen Konservierungsgrades dieser Region wurden bestimmte funktionelle Domänen, die in allen coronaviralen nsp3 konserviert sind, identifiziert. Dazu gehören: eine saure Domäne, zwei Papain-ähnliche Proteasen (PL1pro und PL2pro) sowie zwei weitere konservierte Domänen (X- bzw. Y-Domäne). Frühere Studien konzentrierten sich vor allem auf die PLpro-Domänen, während die Funktionen der anderen nsp3-Domänen bisher nicht untersucht wurden. Um weitere Einblicke in die nsp3-vermittelten Aktivitäten und ihre Funktionen im coronaviralen Lebenszyklus zu gewinnen, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit die enzymatischen Aktivitäten von zwei nsp3-Domänen, PLpro und X, näher charakterisiert. Coronavirale Papain-ähnliche Proteasen spalten den aminoproximalen Bereich der Polyproteine pp1a/pp1ab und sind somit an der Freisetzung von nsp1, nsp2 und nsp3 beteiligt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die durch die PLpro vermittelte proteolytische Prozessierung des N-terminalen Endes von nsp3 bei TGEV und SARS-CoV analysiert. Übereinstimmend mit früheren Vorhersagen ergaben In-vitro-Translationsexperimente und Proteinsequenzierungen, dass die TGEV-PL1pro die Peptidbindung zwischen Gly879 und Gly880 spaltet, wodurch das aminoterminale Ende von nsp3 bzw. das carboxyterminale Ende von nsp2 freigesetzt werden. Diese Schnittstelle entpricht bei SARS-CoV der Sequenz Gly818|Ala819, die jedoch bei diesem Virus von der PL2pro prozessiert wird. Mutationsanalysen ergaben weiterhin, dass die Reste Cys1093 (TGEV-PL1pro) und Cys1651 (SARS-CoV-PL2pro) für die proteolytische Aktivität essentiell sind. Diese Daten stützen Vorhersagen zu möglichen katalytischen (nukleophilen) Funktionen dieser beiden Reste. Darüber hinaus wurde das stromaufwärts gelegene nsp2 in TGEV-infizierten Zellen identifiziert. Diese Daten, zusammen mit vorherigen Studien, legen den Schluss nahe, dass die Coronavirus-PLpro-vermittelte proteolytische Prozessierung –trotz der geringen Konservierung des Polyproteinsubstrates und bestehender Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Anzahl konservierter PLpro-Domänen– weitgehend konserviert ist. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit sollte die enzymatische Aktivität einer weiteren konservierten Domäne im coronaviralen nsp3, der sogenannten X-Domäne, untersucht werden. Für diese Domäne war eine ADP-Ribose-1"-Monophosphatase-Aktivität (Appr-1"-pase) vorhergesagt worden. Um die Eigenschaften dieser Proteine näher zu bestimmen und möglicherweise existierende Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen coronaviralen Enzymen, die den viralen Lebenszyklus steuern und/oder kontrollieren, zu identifizieren, wurden die X-Domänen von drei verschiedenen Coronaviren, HCoV-229E, TGEV und SARS-CoV, die unterschiedlichen serologischen Coronavirus-Gruppen angehören, in vitro untersucht und miteinander verglichen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass bakteriell (E.coli-) exprimierte X-Domänen aller drei untersuchten Viren ADP-Ribose-1"-Phosphat, ein Nebenprodukt des zellulären tRNA-Splicings, zu ADP-Ribose dephosphorylieren können. Diese Daten beweisen zweifelsfrei die Appr-1"-pase-Aktivität coronaviraler X-Domänen und lassen vermuten, dass diese Aktivität bei allen Coronaviren konserviert ist. Weitere Untersuchungen zur Substratspezifität und zu möglichen katalytischen Resten des Enzyms wurden mit Hilfe bakteriell exprimierter, mutierter Formen der HCoV-229E-X-Domäne durchgeführt. Die gewonnenen Daten legen die Vermutung nahe, dass die Phosphohydrolaseaktivität hochspezifisch für das Substrat Appr-1"-p ist und die HCoV-229E-pp1a/pp1ab-Reste Asn1302, Asn1305, His1310, Gly1312 und Gly1313 an der Ausbildung des aktiven Zentrum des Enzyms beteiligt sind. Abschließend wurde die Funktion der Appr-1"-pase-Aktivität mit Hilfe einer HCoV-229E-Mutante, in der die Appr-1"-pase-Aktivität durch ortsspezifische Mutagenese ausgeschaltet wurde, in Zellkultur analysiert. Überraschenderweise hatte die Mutation keine nachweisbare Auswirkung auf die virale RNA-Synthese oder den Virustiter, und sie erwies sich auch nach sechs Passagen in Zellkultur als stabil. Die Tatsache, dass die Appr-1"-pase-Aktivität für die Replikation und Transkription von HCoV-229E entbehrlich ist, zeigt, dass Coronavirus-Replikasegene auch nichtessentielle Funktionen kodieren, die möglicherweise akzessorische und/oder regulatorische Funktionen besitzen und nur unter bestimmten Bedingungen (z.B. im infizierten Wirt) einen Selektionsvorteil bieten bzw. essentiell sind. Weitere Studien sind erforderlich, um die biologische Funktion der X-Domäne im Detail zu bestimmen.Coronaviruses infect humans and a broad range of animal spezies and are mainly associated with respiratory and enteric diseases. Replication of the single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome of 27-32 kb and production of an extensive set of subgenome-length RNAs (viral transcription) are mediated by a huge multienzyme complex which contains several cellular proteins and up to 16 viral nonstructural proteins (nsp) that are released by viral proteases from the replicase gene-encoded polyprotein precursors, pp1a and pp1ab. The largest coronaviral replicative processing product, nsp3, resides in the N-terminal part of polyproteins pp1a and pp1ab. Despite the generally low conservation of this protein among coronaviruses, several domains could be identified in nsp3 that are conserved in all coronaviruses. These include an acidic domain, one or two papain-like proteases (PL1pro and PL2pro), and two additional domains designated X and Y. Previous studies on nsp3 focused mainly on the characterisation of the PLpro activities while the functions of other nsp3-domains have not been addressed in any detail. To gain more insight into nsp3-encoded activities and their functions in the coronaviral life cycle, two nsp3-associated enzymatic activities, PLpro and X, were characterized in this work. Coronaviral papain-like proteases process the N-proximal part of polyproteins pp1a/pp1ab, thus producing nsp1, nsp2 and nsp3. In this study, the PLpro-mediated cleavage at the N-terminal end of nsp3 was analyzed for TGEV and SARS-CoV. Consistent with previous predictions, in vitro translation experiments and protein sequencing revealed that the TGEV-PL1pro cleaves the polyproteins pp1a/pp1ab at 879Gly|Gly880, releasing the carboxyl- and amino-terminal ends of nsp2 and nsp3, respectively. The corresponding cleavage site in the pp1a/pp1ab of SARS-CoV was shown to be processed by PL2pro at 818Gly|Ala819. A mutational analysis showed that the residues Cys1093 (TGEV PL1pro) and Cys1651 (SARS-CoV PL2pro) are essential for proteolytic activity, confirming previous predictions on their catalytic (nucleophilic) functions. Consistent with the in vitro cleavage data, the upstream processing product, nsp2, could be identified in TGEV-infected cells. The data, together with previous studies, suggest that coronaviral PLpro-mediated proteolytic cleavages –despite the low conservation of the polyprotein substrate and even variation in the number of catalytically active PLpro domains– occur in a largely conserved manner. The second part of this work was devoted to identifying and characterising the ADP-ribose-1"-monophosphatase (Appr-1"-pase) activity predicted to be associated with another conserved nsp3-subdomain called X. To characterise the features and identify possibly existing common properties among the enzymes that mediate and/or regulate the coronavirus life cycle, the activities of X domains from three coronaviruses, HCoV-229E, TGEV and SARS-CoV, which belong to different coronavirus serogroups, were investigated in vitro and compared with each other. By using E. coli-expressed forms of these three viral X domains, it could be demonstrated that all these proteins are able to dephosphorylate ADP-ribose-1"-phosphate, a side product of cellular tRNA splicing, to produce ADP-ribose. The data unambiguously establish the Appr-1"-pase activity of coronaviral X domains and suggest that the activity is conserved in all coronaviruses. Further studies into the substrate specificity and possible active-site residues, which were done by using mutant forms of the bacterially expressed HCoV-229E X domain, led us to suggest that the phosphohydrolase activity is highly specific for the substrate Appr-1"-p and predict that that the replicase polyprotein residues, Asn1302, Asn1305, His1310, Gly1312, and Gly1313, are part of the enzyme's active site. Finally, effects on viral RNA synthesis and virus reproduction were studied by using an Appr-1"-pase-deficient HCoV-229E mutant. Surprisingly, neither viral RNA synthesis nor virus titer was found to be affected and no reversion to the wild-type sequence was detected when the mutant virus was passaged in cell culture. Taken together, the data suggest that coronavirus replicase genes also encode non-essential functions. Although being dispensable in tissue culture, such accessory and/or regulatory functions might be a selective advantage or even prove to be essential for viral replication in the infected host. The biological significance of this novel enzymatic activity remains to be identified

ADP-Ribose-1"-Monophosphatase: a Conserved Coronavirus Enzyme That Is Dispensable for Viral Replication in Tissue Culture

Replication of the ∼30-kb plus-strand RNA genome of coronaviruses and synthesis of an extensive set of subgenome-length RNAs are mediated by the replicase-transcriptase, a membrane-bound protein complex containing several cellular proteins and up to 16 viral nonstructural proteins (nsps) with multiple enzymatic activities, including protease, polymerase, helicase, methyltransferase, and RNase activities. To get further insight into the replicase gene-encoded functions, we characterized the coronavirus X domain, which is part of nsp3 and has been predicted to be an ADP-ribose-1"-monophosphate (Appr-1"-p) processing enzyme. Bacterially expressed forms of human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) and severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus X domains were shown to dephosphorylate Appr-1"-p, a side product of cellular tRNA splicing, to ADP-ribose in a highly specific manner. The enzyme had no detectable activity on several other nucleoside phosphates. Guided by the crystal structure of AF1521, an X domain homolog from Archaeoglobus fulgidus, potential active-site residues of the HCoV-229E X domain were targeted by site-directed mutagenesis. The data suggest that the HCoV-229E replicase polyprotein residues, Asn 1302, Asn 1305, His 1310, Gly 1312, and Gly 1313, are part of the enzyme's active site. Characterization of an Appr-1"-pase-deficient HCoV-229E mutant revealed no significant effects on viral RNA synthesis and virus titer, and no reversion to the wild-type sequence was observed when the mutant virus was passaged in cell culture. The apparent dispensability of the conserved X domain activity in vitro indicates that coronavirus replicase polyproteins have evolved to include nonessential functions. The biological significance of the novel enzymatic activity in vivo remains to be investigated