Precis of neuroconstructivism: how the brain constructs cognition

Neuroconstructivism: How the Brain Constructs Cognition proposes a unifying framework for the study of cognitive development that brings together (1) constructivism (which views development as the progressive elaboration of increasingly complex structures), (2) cognitive neuroscience (which aims to understand the neural mechanisms underlying behavior), and (3) computational modeling (which proposes formal and explicit specifications of information processing). The guiding principle of our approach is context dependence, within and (in contrast to Marr [1982]) between levels of organization. We propose that three mechanisms guide the emergence of representations: competition, cooperation, and chronotopy; which themselves allow for two central processes: proactivity and progressive specialization. We suggest that the main outcome of development is partial representations, distributed across distinct functional circuits. This framework is derived by examining development at the level of single neurons, brain systems, and whole organisms. We use the terms encellment, embrainment, and embodiment to describe the higher-level contextual influences that act at each of these levels of organization. To illustrate these mechanisms in operation we provide case studies in early visual perception, infant habituation, phonological development, and object representations in infancy. Three further case studies are concerned with interactions between levels of explanation: social development, atypical development and within that, developmental dyslexia. We conclude that cognitive development arises from a dynamic, contextual change in embodied neural structures leading to partial representations across multiple brain regions and timescales, in response to proactively specified physical and social environment

The case of late preterm birth: sliding forwards the critical window for cognitive outcome risk

Many survivors of preterm birth experience neurodevelopmental disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, visual and hearing problems. However, even in the absence of major neurological complications, premature babies show significant neuropsychological and behavioural deficits during childhood and beyond. While the clinical tools routinely used to assess neurocognitive development in those infants have been useful in detecting major clinical complications in early infancy, they have not been equally sensitive in identifying subtle cognitive impairments emerging during childhood. These methodological concerns become even more relevant when considering the case of late preterm children (born between 34 and 36 gestational weeks). Although these children have been traditionally considered as having similar risks for developmental problems as neonates born at term, a recent line of research has provided growing evidence that even late preterm children display altered structural and functional brain maturation, with potential life-long implications for neurocognitive functioning. A recent study by Heinonen put forward the hypothesis that environmental factors, in this case educational attainment, could moderate the association between late preterm birth (LPT) and neuropsychological impairments commonly associated with aging. In this paper we bring together clinical literature and recent neuroimaging evidence in order to provide two different but complementary approaches for a better understanding of the "nature-nurture" interplay underlying the lifespan neurocognitive development of preterm babies

Modelling the Developing Mind: From Structure to Change

This paper presents a theory of cognitive change. The theory assumes that the fundamental causes of cognitive change reside in the architecture of mind. Thus, the architecture of mind as specified by the theory is described first. It is assumed that the mind is a three-level universe involving (1) a processing system that constrains processing potentials, (2) a set of specialized capacity systems that guide understanding of different reality and knowledge domains, and (3) a hypecognitive system that monitors and controls the functioning of all other systems. The paper then specifies the types of change that may occur in cognitive development (changes within the levels of mind, changes in the relations between structures across levels, changes in the efficiency of a structure) and a series of general (e.g., metarepresentation) and more specific mechanisms (e.g., bridging, interweaving, and fusion) that bring the changes about. It is argued that different types of change require different mechanisms. Finally, a general model of the nature of cognitive development is offered. The relations between the theory proposed in the paper and other theories and research in cognitive development and cognitive neuroscience is discussed throughout the paper

Inclusive education and social competence development

Students with special educational needs are exposed to the same social and cultural effects as any other child. Their social and emotional development also evolves under those influences and they, too, must adjust to the conditions of their environment. In several cases, however, an inadequate learning environment keeps these children from experiencing and learning social skills and abilities (such as self-confidence and independence). Inclusive education for children with special educational needs is not common practice in Hungary even though it is equally well suited to fostering different social skills and abilities in children with either average or non-average development. This paper endeavours to argue for the importance of having inclusive education in Hungary by discussing examples abroad, with special emphasis on research and practical implementations in Great Britain

Human metabolic adaptations and prolonged expensive neurodevelopment: A review

1.	After weaning, human hunter-gatherer juveniles receive substantial (≈3.5-7 MJ day^-1^), extended (≈15 years) and reliable (kin and nonkin food pooling) energy provision.
2.	The childhood (pediatric) and the adult human brain takes a very high share of both basal metabolic rate (BMR) (child: 50-70%; adult: ≈20%) and total energy expenditure (TEE) (child: 30-50%; adult: ≈10%).
3.	The pediatric brain for an extended period (≈4-9 years-of-age) consumes roughly 50% more energy than the adult one, and after this, continues during adolescence, at a high but declining rate. Within the brain, childhood cerebral gray matter has an even higher 1.9 to 2.2-fold increased energy consumption. 
4.	This metabolic expensiveness is due to (i) the high cost of synapse activation (74% of brain energy expenditure in humans), combined with (ii), a prolonged period of exuberance in synapse numbers (up to double the number present in adults). Cognitive development during this period associates with volumetric changes in gray matter (expansion and contraction due to metabolic related size alterations in glial cells and capillary vascularization), and in white matter (expansion due to myelination). 
5.	Amongst mammals, anatomically modern humans show an unique pattern in which very slow musculoskeletal body growth is followed by a marked adolescent size/stature spurt. This pattern of growth contrasts with nonhuman primates that have a sustained fast juvenile growth with only a minor period of puberty acceleration. The existence of slow childhood growth in humans has been shown to date back to 160,000 BP. 
6.	Human children physiologically have a limited capacity to protect the brain from plasma glucose fluctuations and other metabolic disruptions. These can arise in adults, during prolonged strenuous exercise when skeletal muscle depletes plasma glucose, and produces other metabolic disruptions upon the brain (hypoxia, hyperthermia, dehydration and hyperammonemia). These are proportional to muscle mass.
7.	Children show specific adaptations to minimize such metabolic disturbances. (i) Due to slow body growth and resulting small body size, they have limited skeletal muscle mass. (ii) They show other adaptations such as an exercise specific preference for free fatty acid metabolism. (iii) While children are generally more active than adolescents and adults, they avoid physically prolonged intense exertion. 
8.	Childhood has a close relationship to high levels of energy provision and metabolic adaptations that support prolonged synaptic neurodevelopment. 
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Event-Related Potentials and Emotion Processing in Child Psychopathology

In recent years there has been increasing interest in the neural mechanisms underlying altered emotional processes in children and adolescents with psychopathology. This review provides a brief overview of the most up-to-date findings in the field of Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) to facial and vocal emotional expressions in the most common child psychopathological conditions. In regards to externalising behaviour (i.e. ADHD, CD), ERP studies show enhanced early components to anger, reflecting enhanced sensory processing, followed by reductions in later components to anger, reflecting reduced cognitive-evaluative processing. In regards to internalising behaviour, research supports models of increased processing of threat stimuli especially at later more elaborate and effortful stages. Finally, in autism spectrum disorders abnormalities have been observed at early visual-perceptual stages of processing. An affective neuroscience framework for understanding child psychopathology can be valuable in elucidating underlying mechanisms and inform preventive intervention

Human metabolic adaptations and prolonged expensive neurodevelopment: A review

1.	After weaning, human hunter-gatherer juveniles receive substantial (≈3.5-7 MJ day^-1^), extended (≈15 years) and reliable (kin and nonkin food pooling) energy provision.
2.	The childhood (pediatric) and the adult human brain takes a very high share of both basal metabolic rate (BMR) (child: 50-70%; adult: ≈20%) and total energy expenditure (TEE) (child: 30-50%; adult: ≈10%).
3.	The pediatric brain for an extended period (≈4-9 years-of-age) consumes roughly 50% more energy than the adult one, and after this, continues during adolescence, at a high but declining rate. Within the brain, childhood cerebral gray matter has an even higher 1.9 to 2.2-fold increased energy consumption. 
4.	This metabolic expensiveness is due to (i) the high cost of synapse activation (74% of brain energy expenditure in humans), combined with (ii), a prolonged period of exuberance in synapse numbers (up to double the number present in adults). Cognitive development during this period associates with volumetric changes in gray matter (expansion and contraction due to metabolic related size alterations in glial cells and capillary vascularization), and in white matter (expansion due to myelination). 
5.	Amongst mammals, anatomically modern humans show an unique pattern in which very slow musculoskeletal body growth is followed by a marked adolescent size/stature spurt. This pattern of growth contrasts with nonhuman primates that have a sustained fast juvenile growth with only a minor period of puberty acceleration. The existence of slow childhood growth in humans has been shown to date back to 160,000 BP. 
6.	Human children physiologically have a limited capacity to protect the brain from plasma glucose fluctuations and other metabolic disruptions. These can arise in adults, during prolonged strenuous exercise when skeletal muscle depletes plasma glucose, and produces other metabolic disruptions upon the brain (hypoxia, hyperthermia, dehydration and hyperammonemia). These are proportional to muscle mass.
7.	Children show specific adaptations to minimize such metabolic disturbances. (i) Due to slow body growth and resulting small body size, they have limited skeletal muscle mass. (ii) They show other adaptations such as an exercise specific preference for free fatty acid metabolism. (iii) While children are generally more active than adolescents and adults, they avoid physically prolonged intense exertion. 
8.	Childhood has a close relationship to high levels of energy provision and metabolic adaptations that support prolonged synaptic neurodevelopment. 
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Adolescent development of functional brain networks of selective and divided attention

Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää valikoivan ja jaetun tarkkaavaisuuden kehitystä nuoruusiässä aivojen toiminnallisen magneettikuvantamisen (fMRI) sekä behavioraalisten mittareiden avulla. Tarkkaavaisuudelle ja toiminnanohjaukselle tärkeä etuotsalohko kehittyy vielä aikuisiän saavuttamisen jälkeen, mutta nuoruusiässä tapahtuvasta kehityksestä on hyvin vähän tutkimuksia. Jaetun tarkkaavaisuuden kehitystä ei ole tutkittu aiemmin fMRI:llä. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkkaavaisuuden kehitystä tarkastellaan sekä pitkittäis- että poikittaisasetelmilla. Lähes kaikki aiemmat tutkimukset aiheesta ovat poikittaistutkimuksia, joten on kiinnostavaa selvittää myös mahdollisia eroja tutkimusasetelmien tuottamissa tuloksissa. Aivojen aktivaatiota tehtävän aikana mitattiin 103:lta 13–22-vuotiaalta koehenkilöltä, jotka oli jaettu kolmeen kohorttiin. Kaksi nuorinta kohorttia mitattiin uudelleen 1,5 vuoden jälkeen pitkittäistutkimusta varten. Skannerissa koehenkilöt tekivät tehtävää, jossa he arvioivat lauseiden semanttista johdonmukaisuutta. Heitä ohjeistettiin tarkkailemaan joko puhe- tai tekstiärsykkeitä tai jakamaan tarkkaavaisuutensa näiden kesken. Poikittaistulosten mukaan tehtäväsuoriutuminen oli parempaa vanhemmissa kohorteissa (16–17v. ja 20–22v.) kuin nuorimmassa kohortissa (13–14v.), mutta vanhempien kohorttien välillä ei ollut eroa. Pitkittäistutkimuksessa ei kuitenkaan havaittu selkeää kehitystä valikoivan tai jaetun tarkkaavaisuuden tehtävätilanteissa. Pitkittäisten fMRI-tulosten mukaan aivojen aktivaatio väheni valikoivassa tarkkaavaisuudessa erityisesti etuotsalohkon sisäpinnalla 13–14-vuotiaasta 15–16 vuoden ikään, ja aktivaatio lisääntyi hieman päälaenlohkon alueella. Jaetussa tarkkaavaisuudessa taas aktivaatio väheni pääasiassa etuotsalohkon ulkopinnalla. 16–17-vuotiaasta 18–19-vuotiaaksi aktivaatio lisääntyi kummassakin tehtävässä motorisilla alueilla sekä etukiilassa (precuneus), jotka on liitetty toiminnanohjaukseen. Yleisesti efektit olivat kuitenkin varsin pieniä johtuen mahdollisesti lyhyestä mittausvälistä ja pienehköstä otoskoosta. Poikittaistuloksissa taas kehitys näytti hyvin erilaiselta ja aktivaatio keskittyi niissä enemmän temporaalialueille. Erot asetelmien tuloksissa korostavat pitkittäistutkimusten tärkeyttä kehityksen tutkimuksessa, erityisesti käytettäessä fMRI:tä. Vaikka aktivaation muutokset olivat pieniä, pitkittäistulokset olivat silti linjassa aiempien toiminnanohjauksen tutkimusten kanssa, joiden mukaan iän myötä aktivaatio vähenee etuotsalohkolla ja lisääntyy muilla tehtävälle keskeisillä alueilla. Tämän tutkimuksen tulokset viittaavat siihen, että joitain muutoksia toiminnanohjaukseen liittyvässä verkostossa tapahtuu vielä nuoruusiästä varhaisaikuisuuteen, kun etuotsalohko ja sen yhteydet kypsyvät.The aim of this study is to examine the development of selective and divided attention in adolescence using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and behavioral measures. Although the prefrontal cortex, a key area for attention and cognitive control, is thought to mature well into adulthood, few studies have examined the development of attention in adolescents and young adults. No fMRI studies have been conducted on the development of divided attention. In this study, development was examined both cross-sectionally and longitudinally to also assess the possible differences in the results they produced, as nearly all previous studies have been cross-sectional. Brain activity was measured from 103 participants aged 13–22 who were divided into three age cohorts. The youngest two cohorts were measured again after 1.5 years for the longitudinal study. While in the scanner, participants performed a sentence congruence task where they were instructed either to attend to only the speech or text stimulus or divide their attention between both modalities simultaneously. The cross-sectional results showed improvement in task performance between the youngest cohort (13– 14y.) and the older cohorts in both selective and divided attention tasks. No difference was found between the older two cohorts (16–17y. and 20–22y.) However, the longitudinal results did not indicate clear performance improvement with age in either task type. According to the longitudinal fMRI results from age 13–14 to 15–16, in the selective attention task brain activity decreased mainly in the medial prefrontal area and activity increased slightly in parietal regions. In the divided attention task, the decreased prefrontal activity was more lateral. From age 16–17 to 18– 19, increased activity in motor regions and precuneus was found in both tasks. In general, the effects were very subtle, possibly due to a short measurement interval and relatively small cohort sizes. The cross-sectional results indicated quite a different pattern of change in brain activity, concentrated on temporal areas. This difference in results emphasizes the importance of conducting longitudinal developmental studies in the future. Although the effects were not large, the longitudinal fMRI results were in line with some previous findings that prefrontal areas are recruited less with age, so that activity in more posterior task-related areas increases. The current results suggest that some fine-tuning of the attention and cognitive control-related network still occurs from adolescence to early adulthood, as the prefrontal cortex and its connections mature

Convergent and divergent fMRI responses in children and adults to increasing language production demands

In adults, patterns of neural activation associated with perhaps the most basic language skill—overt object naming—are extensively modulated by the psycholinguistic and visual complexity of the stimuli. Do children's brains react similarly when confronted with increasing processing demands, or they solve this problem in a different way? Here we scanned 37 children aged 7–13 and 19 young adults who performed a well-normed picture-naming task with 3 levels of difficulty. While neural organization for naming was largely similar in childhood and adulthood, adults had greater activation in all naming conditions over inferior temporal gyri and superior temporal gyri/supramarginal gyri. Manipulating naming complexity affected adults and children quite differently: neural activation, especially over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, showed complexity-dependent increases in adults, but complexity-dependent decreases in children. These represent fundamentally different responses to the linguistic and conceptual challenges of a simple naming task that makes no demands on literacy or metalinguistics. We discuss how these neural differences might result from different cognitive strategies used by adults and children during lexical retrieval/production as well as developmental changes in brain structure and functional connectivity

More is more in language learning:reconsidering the less-is-more hypothesis

The Less-is-More hypothesis was proposed to explain age-of-acquisition effects in first language (L1) acquisition and second language (L2) attainment. We scrutinize different renditions of the hypothesis by examining how learning outcomes are affected by (1) limited cognitive capacity, (2) reduced interference resulting from less prior knowledge, and (3) simplified language input. While there is little-to-no evidence of benefits of limited cognitive capacity, there is ample support for a More-is-More account linking enhanced capacity with better L1- and L2-learning outcomes, and reduced capacity with childhood language disorders. Instead, reduced prior knowledge (relative to adults) may afford children with greater flexibility in inductive inference; this contradicts the idea that children benefit from a more constrained hypothesis space. Finally, studies of childdirected speech (CDS) confirm benefits from less complex input at early stages, but also emphasize how greater lexical and syntactic complexity of the input confers benefits in L1-attainment