Self-similarity and wavelet forms for the compression of still image and video data

This thesis is concerned with the methods used to reduce the data volume required to represent still images and video sequences. The number of disparate still image and video coding methods increases almost daily. Recently, two new strategies have emerged and have stimulated widespread research. These are the fractal method and the wavelet transform. In this thesis, it will be argued that the two methods share a common principle: that of self-similarity. The two will be related concretely via an image coding algorithm which combines the two, normally disparate, strategies. The wavelet transform is an orientation selective transform. It will be shown that the selectivity of the conventional transform is not sufficient to allow exploitation of self-similarity while keeping computational cost low. To address this, a new wavelet transform is presented which allows for greater orientation selectivity, while maintaining the orthogonality and data volume of the conventional wavelet transform. Many designs for vector quantizers have been published recently and another is added to the gamut by this work. The tree structured vector quantizer presented here is on-line and self structuring, requiring no distinct training phase. Combining these into a still image data compression system produces results which are among the best that have been published to date. An extension of the two dimensional wavelet transform to encompass the time dimension is straightforward and this work attempts to extrapolate some of its properties into three dimensions. The vector quantizer is then applied to three dimensional image data to produce a video coding system which, while not optimal, produces very encouraging results

Contributions in image and video coding

Orientador: Max Henrique Machado CostaTese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de ComputaçãoResumo: A comunidade de codificação de imagens e vídeo vem também trabalhando em inovações que vão além das tradicionais técnicas de codificação de imagens e vídeo. Este trabalho é um conjunto de contribuições a vários tópicos que têm recebido crescente interesse de pesquisadores na comunidade, nominalmente, codificação escalável, codificação de baixa complexidade para dispositivos móveis, codificação de vídeo de múltiplas vistas e codificação adaptativa em tempo real. A primeira contribuição estuda o desempenho de três transformadas 3-D rápidas por blocos em um codificador de vídeo de baixa complexidade. O codificador recebeu o nome de Fast Embedded Video Codec (FEVC). Novos métodos de implementação e ordens de varredura são propostos para as transformadas. Os coeficiente 3-D são codificados por planos de bits pelos codificadores de entropia, produzindo um fluxo de bits (bitstream) de saída totalmente embutida. Todas as implementações são feitas usando arquitetura com aritmética inteira de 16 bits. Somente adições e deslocamentos de bits são necessários, o que reduz a complexidade computacional. Mesmo com essas restrições, um bom desempenho em termos de taxa de bits versus distorção pôde ser obtido e os tempos de codificação são significativamente menores (em torno de 160 vezes) quando comparados ao padrão H.264/AVC. A segunda contribuição é a otimização de uma recente abordagem proposta para codificação de vídeo de múltiplas vistas em aplicações de video-conferência e outras aplicações do tipo "unicast" similares. O cenário alvo nessa abordagem é fornecer vídeo com percepção real em 3-D e ponto de vista livre a boas taxas de compressão. Para atingir tal objetivo, pesos são atribuídos a cada vista e mapeados em parâmetros de quantização. Neste trabalho, o mapeamento ad-hoc anteriormente proposto entre pesos e parâmetros de quantização é mostrado ser quase-ótimo para uma fonte Gaussiana e um mapeamento ótimo é derivado para fonte típicas de vídeo. A terceira contribuição explora várias estratégias para varredura adaptativa dos coeficientes da transformada no padrão JPEG XR. A ordem de varredura original, global e adaptativa do JPEG XR é comparada com os métodos de varredura localizados e híbridos propostos neste trabalho. Essas novas ordens não requerem mudanças nem nos outros estágios de codificação e decodificação, nem na definição da bitstream A quarta e última contribuição propõe uma transformada por blocos dependente do sinal. As transformadas hierárquicas usualmente exploram a informação residual entre os níveis no estágio da codificação de entropia, mas não no estágio da transformada. A transformada proposta neste trabalho é uma técnica de compactação de energia que também explora as similaridades estruturais entre os níveis de resolução. A idéia central da técnica é incluir na transformada hierárquica um número de funções de base adaptativas derivadas da resolução menor do sinal. Um codificador de imagens completo foi desenvolvido para medir o desempenho da nova transformada e os resultados obtidos são discutidos neste trabalhoAbstract: The image and video coding community has often been working on new advances that go beyond traditional image and video architectures. This work is a set of contributions to various topics that have received increasing attention from researchers in the community, namely, scalable coding, low-complexity coding for portable devices, multiview video coding and run-time adaptive coding. The first contribution studies the performance of three fast block-based 3-D transforms in a low complexity video codec. The codec has received the name Fast Embedded Video Codec (FEVC). New implementation methods and scanning orders are proposed for the transforms. The 3-D coefficients are encoded bit-plane by bit-plane by entropy coders, producing a fully embedded output bitstream. All implementation is performed using 16-bit integer arithmetic. Only additions and bit shifts are necessary, thus lowering computational complexity. Even with these constraints, reasonable rate versus distortion performance can be achieved and the encoding time is significantly smaller (around 160 times) when compared to the H.264/AVC standard. The second contribution is the optimization of a recent approach proposed for multiview video coding in videoconferencing applications or other similar unicast-like applications. The target scenario in this approach is providing realistic 3-D video with free viewpoint video at good compression rates. To achieve such an objective, weights are computed for each view and mapped into quantization parameters. In this work, the previously proposed ad-hoc mapping between weights and quantization parameters is shown to be quasi-optimum for a Gaussian source and an optimum mapping is derived for a typical video source. The third contribution exploits several strategies for adaptive scanning of transform coefficients in the JPEG XR standard. The original global adaptive scanning order applied in JPEG XR is compared with the localized and hybrid scanning methods proposed in this work. These new orders do not require changes in either the other coding and decoding stages or in the bitstream definition. The fourth and last contribution proposes an hierarchical signal dependent block-based transform. Hierarchical transforms usually exploit the residual cross-level information at the entropy coding step, but not at the transform step. The transform proposed in this work is an energy compaction technique that can also exploit these cross-resolution-level structural similarities. The core idea of the technique is to include in the hierarchical transform a number of adaptive basis functions derived from the lower resolution of the signal. A full image codec is developed in order to measure the performance of the new transform and the obtained results are discussed in this workDoutoradoTelecomunicações e TelemáticaDoutor em Engenharia Elétric

Block-level discrete cosine transform coefficients for autonomic face recognition

This dissertation presents a novel method of autonomic face recognition based on the recently proposed biologically plausible network of networks (NoN) model of information processing. The NoN model is based on locally parallel and globally coordinated transformations. In the NoN architecture, the neurons or computational units form distributed networks, which themselves link to form larger networks. In the general case, an n-level hierarchy of nested distributed networks is constructed. This models the structures in the cerebral cortex described by Mountcastle and the architecture based on that proposed for information processing by Sutton. In the implementation proposed in the dissertation, the image is processed by a nested family of locally operating networks along with a hierarchically superior network that classifies the information from each of the local networks. The implementation of this approach helps obtain sensitivity to the contrast sensitivity function (CSF) in the middle of the spectrum, as is true for the human vision system. The input images are divided into blocks to define the local regions of processing. The two-dimensional Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), a spatial frequency transform, is used to transform the data into the frequency domain. Thereafter, statistical operators that calculate various functions of spatial frequency in the block are used to produce a block-level DCT coefficient. The image is now transformed into a variable length vector that is trained with respect to the data set. The classification was done by the use of a backpropagation neural network. The proposed method yields excellent results on a benchmark database. The results of the experiments yielded a maximum of 98.5% recognition accuracy and an average of 97.4% recognition accuracy. An advanced version of the method where the local processing is done on offset blocks has also been developed. This has validated the NoN approach and further research using local processing as well as more advanced global operators is likely to yield even better results

Dense light field coding: a survey

Light Field (LF) imaging is a promising solution for providing more immersive and closer to reality multimedia experiences to end-users with unprecedented creative freedom and flexibility for applications in different areas, such as virtual and augmented reality. Due to the recent technological advances in optics, sensor manufacturing and available transmission bandwidth, as well as the investment of many tech giants in this area, it is expected that soon many LF transmission systems will be available to both consumers and professionals. Recognizing this, novel standardization initiatives have recently emerged in both the Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) and the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), triggering the discussion on the deployment of LF coding solutions to efficiently handle the massive amount of data involved in such systems. Since then, the topic of LF content coding has become a booming research area, attracting the attention of many researchers worldwide. In this context, this paper provides a comprehensive survey of the most relevant LF coding solutions proposed in the literature, focusing on angularly dense LFs. Special attention is placed on a thorough description of the different LF coding methods and on the main concepts related to this relevant area. Moreover, comprehensive insights are presented into open research challenges and future research directions for LF coding.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Perceptual quality assessment and processing for visual signals.

視覺信號，包括圖像，視頻等，在采集，壓縮，存儲，傳輸，重新生成的過程中都會被各種各樣的噪聲所影響，因此他們的主觀質量也就會降低。所以，主觀視覺質量在現今的視覺信號處理跟通訊系統中起到了很大的作用。這篇畢業論文主要討論質量評價的算法設計，以及這些衡量標準在視覺信號處理上的應用。這篇論文的工作主要包括以下五個方面。第一部分主要集中在具有完全套考原始圖像的圖像質量評價。首先我們研究人類視覺系統的特征。具體說來，視覺在結構化失真上面的水平特性和顯著特征會被建模然后應用到結構相似度(SSIM)這個衡量標準上。實驗顯示我們的方法明顯的提高了衡量標準典主觀評價的相似度。由這個質量衡量標準的啟發，我們設計了一個主觀圖像壓縮的方法。其中我們提出了一個自適應的塊大小的超分辨率算法指導的下采樣的算法。實驗結果證明提出的圖像壓縮算法無論在主觀還是在客觀層面都構建了高質量的圖像。第二個部分的工作主要討論具有完全參考原始視頻的視頻質量評價。考慮到人類視覺系統的特征，比如時空域的對此敏感函數，眼球的移動，紋理的遮掩特性，空間域的一致性，時間域的協調性，不同塊變換的特性，我們設計了一個自適應塊大小的失真閾值的模型。實驗證明，我們提出的失真閾值模型能夠更精確的描迷人類視覺系統的特性。基于這個自適應塊大小的失真閾值模型，我們設計了一個簡單的主觀質量評價標準。在公共的圓像以及視頻的主觀數據庫上的測試結果證明了這個簡單的評價標準的有效性。因此，我們把這個簡單的質量標準應用于視頻編碼系統中。它可以在同樣的碼率下提供更高主觀質量的視頻。第三部分我們討論具有部分參考信息的圖像質量評價。我們通過描迷重組后的離散余弦變換域的系數的統計分布來衡量圖像的主觀質量。提出的評價標準發掘了相鄰的離散余弦系數的相同統計特性，相鄰的重組離散余弦系數的互信息，以及圖像的能量在不同頻率下的分布。實驗結果證明我們提出的質量標準河以超越其他的具有部分參考信息的質量評價標準，甚至還超過了具有完全參考信息的質量評價標準。而且，提取的特征很容易被編碼以及隱藏到圖像中以便于在圖像通訊中進行質量監控。第四部分我們討論具有部分參考信息的視頻質量評價。我們提取的特征可以很好的描迷空間域的信息失，和時間域的相鄰兩幀間的直方圖的統計特性。在視頻主觀質量的數據庫上的實驗結果，也證明了提出的方法河以超越其他代表性的視頻質量評價標準，甚至是具有完全參考信息的質量評價標準， 譬如PSNR以及SSIM 。我們的方法只需要很少的特征來描迷每一幀視頻圖像。對于每一幀圖像，一個特征用于描迷空間域的特點，另外三個特征用于描述時間域的特點。考慮到計算的復雜度以及壓縮特征所需要的碼率，提出的方法河以很簡單的在視頻的傳輸過程中監控視頻的質量。之前的四部分提到的主觀質量評價標準主要集中在傳統的失真上面， 譬如JPEG 圖像壓縮， H.264視頻壓縮。在最后一部分，我們討論在圖像跟視頻的retargeting過程中的失真。現如今，隨著消費者電子的發展，視覺信號需要在不同分辨率的顯示設備上進行通訊交互。因此， retargeting的算法把同一個原始圖像適應于不同的分辨率的顯示設備。這樣的過程就會引入圖像的失真。我們研究了對于retargeting圖像主觀質量的測試者的分數，從三個方面進行討論測試者對于retargeting圖像失真的反應.圖像retargeting的尺度，圖像retargeting的算法，原始圖像的內容特性。通過大量的主觀實驗測試，我們構建了一個關于圖像retargeting的主觀數據庫。基于這個主觀數據庫，我們評價以及分析了幾個具有代表性的質量評價標準。Visual signals, including images, videos, etc., are affected by a wide variety of distortions during acquisition, compression, storage, processing, transmission, and reproduction processes, which result in perceptual quality degradation. As a result, perceptual quality assessment plays a very important role in today's visual signal processing and communication systems. In this thesis, quality assessment algorithms for evaluating the visual signal perceptual quality, as well as the applications on visual signal processing and communications, are investigated. The work consists of five parts as briefly summarized below.The first part focuses on the full-reference (FR) image quality assessment. The properties of the human visual system (HVS) are firstly investigated. Specifically, the visual horizontal effect (HE) and saliency properties over the structural distortions are modelled and incorporated into the structure similarity index (SSIM). Experimental results show significantly improved performance in matching the subjective ratings. Inspired by the developed FR image metric, a perceptual image compression scheme is developed, where the adaptive block-based super-resolution directed down-sampling is proposed. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed image compression scheme can produce higher quality images in terms of both objective and subjective qualities, compared with the existing methods.The second part concerns the FR video quality assessment. The adaptive block-size transform (ABT) based just-noticeable difference (JND) for visual signals is investigated by considering the HVS characteristics, e.g., spatio-temporal contrast sensitivity function (CSF), eye movement, texture masking, spatial coherence, temporal consistency, properties of different block-size transforms, etc. It is verified that the developed ABT based JND can more accurately depict the HVS property, compared with the state-of-the-art JND models. The ABT based JND is thereby utilized to develop a simple perceptual quality metric for visual signals. Validations on the image and video subjective quality databases proved its effectiveness. As a result, the developed perceptual quality metric is employed for perceptual video coding, which can deliver video sequences of higher perceptual quality at the same bit-rates.The third part discusses the reduced-reference (RR) image quality assessment, which is developed by statistically modelling the coe cient distribution in the reorganized discrete cosine transform (RDCT) domain. The proposed RR metric exploits the identical statistical nature of the adjacent DCT coefficients, the mutual information (MI) relationship between adjacent RDCT coefficients, and the image energy distribution among different frequency components. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed metric outperforms the representative RR image quality metrics, and even the FR quality metric, i.e., peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR). Furthermore, the extracted RR features can be easily encoded and embedded into the distorted images for quality monitoring during image communications.The fourth part investigates the RR video quality assessment. The RR features are extracted to exploit the spatial information loss and the temporal statistical characteristics of the inter-frame histogram. Evaluations on the video subjective quality databases demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms the representative RR video quality metrics, and even the FR metrics, such as PSNR, SSIM in matching the subjective ratings. Furthermore, only a small number of RR features is required to represent the original video sequence (each frame requires only 1 and 3 parameters to depict the spatial and temporal characteristics, respectively). By considering the computational complexity and the bit-rates for extracting and representing the RR features, the proposed RR quality metric can be utilized for quality monitoring during video transmissions, where the RR features for perceptual quality analysis can be easily embedded into the videos or transmitted through an ancillary data channel.The aforementioned perceptual quality metrics focus on the traditional distortions, such as JPEG image compression noise, H.264 video compression noise, and so on. In the last part, we investigate the distortions introduced during the image and video retargeting process. Nowadays, with the development of the consumer electronics, more and more visual signals have to communicate between different display devices of different resolutions. The retargeting algorithm is employed to adapt a source image of one resolution to be displayed in a device of a different resolution, which may introduce distortions during the retargeting process. We investigate the subjective responses on the perceptual qualities of the retargeted images, and discuss the subjective results from three perspectives, i.e., retargeting scales, retargeting methods, and source image content attributes. An image retargeting subjective quality database is built by performing a large-scale subjective study of image retargeting quality on a collection of retargeted images. Based on the built database, several representative quality metrics for retargeted images are evaluated and discussed.Detailed summary in vernacular field only.Detailed summary in vernacular field only.Detailed summary in vernacular field only.Detailed summary in vernacular field only.Detailed summary in vernacular field only.Detailed summary in vernacular field only.Ma, Lin."December 2012."Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013.Includes bibliographical references (leaves 185-197).Abstract also in Chinese.Dedication --- p.iiAcknowledgments --- p.iiiAbstract --- p.viiiPublications --- p.xiNomenclature --- p.xviiContents --- p.xxivList of Figures --- p.xxviiiList of Tables --- p.xxxChapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1Chapter 1.1 --- Motivation and Objectives --- p.1Chapter 1.2 --- Subjective Perceptual Quality Assessment --- p.5Chapter 1.3 --- Objective Perceptual Quality Assessment --- p.10Chapter 1.3.1 --- Visual Modelling Approach --- p.10Chapter 1.3.2 --- Engineering Modelling Approach --- p.15Chapter 1.3.3 --- Perceptual Subjective Quality Databases --- p.19Chapter 1.3.4 --- Performance Evaluation --- p.21Chapter 1.4 --- Thesis Contributions --- p.22Chapter 1.5 --- Organization of the Thesis --- p.24Chapter I --- Full Reference Quality Assessment --- p.26Chapter 2 --- Full Reference Image Quality Assessment --- p.27Chapter 2.1 --- Visual Horizontal Effect for Image Quality Assessment --- p.27Chapter 2.1.1 --- Introduction --- p.27Chapter 2.1.2 --- Proposed Image Quality Assessment Framework --- p.28Chapter 2.1.3 --- Experimental Results --- p.34Chapter 2.1.4 --- Conclusion --- p.36Chapter 2.2 --- Image Compression via Adaptive Block-Based Super-Resolution Directed Down-Sampling --- p.37Chapter 2.2.1 --- Introduction --- p.37Chapter 2.2.2 --- The Proposed Image Compression Framework --- p.38Chapter 2.2.3 --- Experimental Results --- p.42Chapter 2.2.4 --- Conclusion --- p.45Chapter 3 --- Full Reference Video Quality Assessment --- p.46Chapter 3.1 --- Adaptive Block-size Transform based Just-Noticeable Dfference Model for Visual Signals --- p.46Chapter 3.1.1 --- Introduction --- p.46Chapter 3.1.2 --- JND Model based on Transforms of Different Block Sizes --- p.48Chapter 3.1.3 --- Selection Strategy Between Transforms of Different Block Sizes --- p.53Chapter 3.1.4 --- JND Model Evaluation --- p.56Chapter 3.1.5 --- Conclusion --- p.60Chapter 3.2 --- Perceptual Quality Assessment --- p.60Chapter 3.2.1 --- Experimental Results --- p.62Chapter 3.2.2 --- Conclusion --- p.64Chapter 3.3 --- Motion Trajectory Based Visual Saliency for Video Quality Assessment --- p.65Chapter 3.3.1 --- Motion Trajectory based Visual Saliency for VQA --- p.66Chapter 3.3.2 --- New Quaternion Representation (QR) for Each frame --- p.66Chapter 3.3.3 --- Saliency Map Construction by QR --- p.67Chapter 3.3.4 --- Incorporating Visual Saliency with VQAs --- p.68Chapter 3.3.5 --- Experimental Results --- p.69Chapter 3.3.6 --- Conclusion --- p.72Chapter 3.4 --- Perceptual Video Coding --- p.72Chapter 3.4.1 --- Experimental Results --- p.75Chapter 3.4.2 --- Conclusion --- p.76Chapter II --- Reduced Reference Quality Assessment --- p.77Chapter 4 --- Reduced Reference Image Quality Assessment --- p.78Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.78Chapter 4.2 --- Reorganization Strategy of DCT Coefficients --- p.81Chapter 4.3 --- Relationship Analysis of Intra and Inter RDCT subbands --- p.83Chapter 4.4 --- Reduced Reference Feature Extraction in Sender Side --- p.88Chapter 4.4.1 --- Intra RDCT Subband Modeling --- p.89Chapter 4.4.2 --- Inter RDCT Subband Modeling --- p.91Chapter 4.4.3 --- Image Frequency Feature --- p.92Chapter 4.5 --- Perceptual Quality Analysis in the Receiver Side --- p.95Chapter 4.5.1 --- Intra RDCT Feature Difference Analysis --- p.95Chapter 4.5.2 --- Inter RDCT Feature Difference Analysis --- p.96Chapter 4.5.3 --- Image Frequency Feature Difference Analysis --- p.96Chapter 4.6 --- Experimental Results --- p.98Chapter 4.6.1 --- Efficiency of the DCT Reorganization Strategy --- p.98Chapter 4.6.2 --- Performance of the Proposed RR IQA --- p.99Chapter 4.6.3 --- Performance of the Proposed RR IQA over Each Individual Distortion Type --- p.105Chapter 4.6.4 --- Statistical Significance --- p.107Chapter 4.6.5 --- Performance Analysis of Each Component --- p.109Chapter 4.7 --- Conclusion --- p.111Chapter 5 --- Reduced Reference Video Quality Assessment --- p.113Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.113Chapter 5.2 --- Proposed Reduced Reference Video Quality Metric --- p.114Chapter 5.2.1 --- Reduced Reference Feature Extraction from Spatial Perspective --- p.116Chapter 5.2.2 --- Reduced Reference Feature Extraction from Temporal Perspective --- p.118Chapter 5.2.3 --- Visual Quality Analysis in Receiver Side --- p.121Chapter 5.3 --- Experimental Results --- p.123Chapter 5.3.1 --- Consistency Test of the Proposed RR VQA over Compressed Video Sequences --- p.124Chapter 5.3.2 --- Consistency Test of the Proposed RR VQA over Video Sequences with Simulated Distortions --- p.126Chapter 5.3.3 --- Performance Evaluation of the Proposed RR VQA on Compressed Video Sequences --- p.129Chapter 5.3.4 --- Performance Evaluation of the Proposed RR VQA on Video Sequences Containing Transmission Distortions --- p.133Chapter 5.3.5 --- Performance Analysis of Each Component --- p.135Chapter 5.4 --- Conclusion --- p.137Chapter III --- Retargeted Visual Signal Quality Assessment --- p.138Chapter 6 --- Image Retargeting Perceptual Quality Assessment --- p.139Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.139Chapter 6.2 --- Preparation of Database Building --- p.142Chapter 6.2.1 --- Source Image --- p.142Chapter 6.2.2 --- Retargeting Methods --- p.143Chapter 6.2.3 --- Subjective Testing --- p.146Chapter 6.3 --- Data Processing and Analysis for the Database --- p.150Chapter 6.3.1 --- Processing of Subjective Ratings --- p.150Chapter 6.3.2 --- Analysis and Discussion of the Subjective Ratings --- p.153Chapter 6.4 --- Objective Quality Metric for Retargeted Images --- p.162Chapter 6.4.1 --- Quality Metric Performances on the Constructed Image Retargeting Database --- p.162Chapter 6.4.2 --- Subjective Analysis of the Shape Distortion and Content Information Loss --- p.165Chapter 6.4.3 --- Discussion --- p.167Chapter 6.5 --- Conclusion --- p.169Chapter 7 --- Conclusions --- p.170Chapter 7.1 --- Conclusion --- p.170Chapter 7.2 --- Future Work --- p.173Chapter A --- Attributes of the Source Image --- p.176Chapter B --- Retargeted Image Name and the Corresponding Number --- p.179Chapter C --- Source Image Name and the Corresponding Number --- p.183Bibliography --- p.18

On the design of fast and efficient wavelet image coders with reduced memory usage

Image compression is of great importance in multimedia systems and applications because it drastically reduces bandwidth requirements for transmission and memory requirements for storage. Although earlier standards for image compression were based on the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), a recently developed mathematical technique, called Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), has been found to be more efficient for image coding. Despite improvements in compression efficiency, wavelet image coders significantly increase memory usage and complexity when compared with DCT-based coders. A major reason for the high memory requirements is that the usual algorithm to compute the wavelet transform requires the entire image to be in memory. Although some proposals reduce the memory usage, they present problems that hinder their implementation. In addition, some wavelet image coders, like SPIHT (which has become a benchmark for wavelet coding), always need to hold the entire image in memory. Regarding the complexity of the coders, SPIHT can be considered quite complex because it performs bit-plane coding with multiple image scans. The wavelet-based JPEG 2000 standard is still more complex because it improves coding efficiency through time-consuming methods, such as an iterative optimization algorithm based on the Lagrange multiplier method, and high-order context modeling. In this thesis, we aim to reduce memory usage and complexity in wavelet-based image coding, while preserving compression efficiency. To this end, a run-length encoder and a tree-based wavelet encoder are proposed. In addition, a new algorithm to efficiently compute the wavelet transform is presented. This algorithm achieves low memory consumption using line-by-line processing, and it employs recursion to automatically place the order in which the wavelet transform is computed, solving some synchronization problems that have not been tackled by previous proposals. The proposed encodeOliver Gil, JS. (2006). On the design of fast and efficient wavelet image coders with reduced memory usage [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/1826Palanci

Image coding using wavelets, interval wavelets and multi- layered wedgelets

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

Recent Advances in Signal Processing

The signal processing task is a very critical issue in the majority of new technological inventions and challenges in a variety of applications in both science and engineering fields. Classical signal processing techniques have largely worked with mathematical models that are linear, local, stationary, and Gaussian. They have always favored closed-form tractability over real-world accuracy. These constraints were imposed by the lack of powerful computing tools. During the last few decades, signal processing theories, developments, and applications have matured rapidly and now include tools from many areas of mathematics, computer science, physics, and engineering. This book is targeted primarily toward both students and researchers who want to be exposed to a wide variety of signal processing techniques and algorithms. It includes 27 chapters that can be categorized into five different areas depending on the application at hand. These five categories are ordered to address image processing, speech processing, communication systems, time-series analysis, and educational packages respectively. The book has the advantage of providing a collection of applications that are completely independent and self-contained; thus, the interested reader can choose any chapter and skip to another without losing continuity

Face recognition by means of advanced contributions in machine learning

Face recognition (FR) has been extensively studied, due to both scientific fundamental challenges and current and potential applications where human identification is needed. FR systems have the benefits of their non intrusiveness, low cost of equipments and no useragreement requirements when doing acquisition, among the most important ones. Nevertheless, despite the progress made in last years and the different solutions proposed, FR performance is not yet satisfactory when more demanding conditions are required (different viewpoints, blocked effects, illumination changes, strong lighting states, etc). Particularly, the effect of such non-controlled lighting conditions on face images leads to one of the strongest distortions in facial appearance. This dissertation addresses the problem of FR when dealing with less constrained illumination situations. In order to approach the problem, a new multi-session and multi-spectral face database has been acquired in visible, Near-infrared (NIR) and Thermal infrared (TIR) spectra, under different lighting conditions. A theoretical analysis using information theory to demonstrate the complementarities between different spectral bands have been firstly carried out. The optimal exploitation of the information provided by the set of multispectral images has been subsequently addressed by using multimodal matching score fusion techniques that efficiently synthesize complementary meaningful information among different spectra. Due to peculiarities in thermal images, a specific face segmentation algorithm has been required and developed. In the final proposed system, the Discrete Cosine Transform as dimensionality reduction tool and a fractional distance for matching were used, so that the cost in processing time and memory was significantly reduced. Prior to this classification task, a selection of the relevant frequency bands is proposed in order to optimize the overall system, based on identifying and maximizing independence relations by means of discriminability criteria. The system has been extensively evaluated on the multispectral face database specifically performed for our purpose. On this regard, a new visualization procedure has been suggested in order to combine different bands for establishing valid comparisons and giving statistical information about the significance of the results. This experimental framework has more easily enabled the improvement of robustness against training and testing illumination mismatch. Additionally, focusing problem in thermal spectrum has been also addressed, firstly, for the more general case of the thermal images (or thermograms), and then for the case of facialthermograms from both theoretical and practical point of view. In order to analyze the quality of such facial thermograms degraded by blurring, an appropriate algorithm has been successfully developed. Experimental results strongly support the proposed multispectral facial image fusion, achieving very high performance in several conditions. These results represent a new advance in providing a robust matching across changes in illumination, further inspiring highly accurate FR approaches in practical scenarios.El reconeixement facial (FR) ha estat àmpliament estudiat, degut tant als reptes fonamentals científics que suposa com a les aplicacions actuals i futures on requereix la identificació de les persones. Els sistemes de reconeixement facial tenen els avantatges de ser no intrusius,presentar un baix cost dels equips d’adquisició i no la no necessitat d’autorització per part de l’individu a l’hora de realitzar l'adquisició, entre les més importants. De totes maneres i malgrat els avenços aconseguits en els darrers anys i les diferents solucions proposades, el rendiment del FR encara no resulta satisfactori quan es requereixen condicions més exigents (diferents punts de vista, efectes de bloqueig, canvis en la il·luminació, condicions de llum extremes, etc.). Concretament, l'efecte d'aquestes variacions no controlades en les condicions d'il·luminació sobre les imatges facials condueix a una de les distorsions més accentuades sobre l'aparença facial. Aquesta tesi aborda el problema del FR en condicions d'il·luminació menys restringides. Per tal d'abordar el problema, hem adquirit una nova base de dades de cara multisessió i multiespectral en l'espectre infraroig visible, infraroig proper (NIR) i tèrmic (TIR), sota diferents condicions d'il·luminació. En primer lloc s'ha dut a terme una anàlisi teòrica utilitzant la teoria de la informació per demostrar la complementarietat entre les diferents bandes espectrals objecte d’estudi. L'òptim aprofitament de la informació proporcionada pel conjunt d'imatges multiespectrals s'ha abordat posteriorment mitjançant l'ús de tècniques de fusió de puntuació multimodals, capaces de sintetitzar de manera eficient el conjunt d’informació significativa complementària entre els diferents espectres. A causa de les característiques particulars de les imatges tèrmiques, s’ha requerit del desenvolupament d’un algorisme específic per la segmentació de les mateixes. En el sistema proposat final, s’ha utilitzat com a eina de reducció de la dimensionalitat de les imatges, la Transformada del Cosinus Discreta i una distància fraccional per realitzar les tasques de classificació de manera que el cost en temps de processament i de memòria es va reduir de forma significa. Prèviament a aquesta tasca de classificació, es proposa una selecció de les bandes de freqüències més rellevants, basat en la identificació i la maximització de les relacions d'independència per mitjà de criteris discriminabilitat, per tal d'optimitzar el conjunt del sistema. El sistema ha estat àmpliament avaluat sobre la base de dades de cara multiespectral, desenvolupada pel nostre propòsit. En aquest sentit s'ha suggerit l’ús d’un nou procediment de visualització per combinar diferents bandes per poder establir comparacions vàlides i donar informació estadística sobre el significat dels resultats. Aquest marc experimental ha permès més fàcilment la millora de la robustesa quan les condicions d’il·luminació eren diferents entre els processos d’entrament i test. De forma complementària, s’ha tractat la problemàtica de l’enfocament de les imatges en l'espectre tèrmic, en primer lloc, pel cas general de les imatges tèrmiques (o termogrames) i posteriorment pel cas concret dels termogrames facials, des dels punt de vista tant teòric com pràctic. En aquest sentit i per tal d'analitzar la qualitat d’aquests termogrames facials degradats per efectes de desenfocament, s'ha desenvolupat un últim algorisme. Els resultats experimentals recolzen fermament que la fusió d'imatges facials multiespectrals proposada assoleix un rendiment molt alt en diverses condicions d’il·luminació. Aquests resultats representen un nou avenç en l’aportació de solucions robustes quan es contemplen canvis en la il·luminació, i esperen poder inspirar a futures implementacions de sistemes de reconeixement facial precisos en escenaris no controlats.Postprint (published version