Health research ethics in malaria vector trials in Africa

Malaria mosquito research in Africa as elsewhere is just over a century old. Early trials for development of mosquito control tools were driven by colonial enterprises and war efforts; they were, therefore, tested in military or colonial settings. The failure of those tools and environmental concerns, coupled with the desperate need for integrated malaria control strategies, has necessitated the development of new malaria mosquito control tools, which are to be tested on humans, their environment and mosquito habitats. Ethical concerns start with phase 2 trials, which pose limited ethical dilemmas. Phase 3 trials, which are undertaken on vulnerable civilian populations, pose ethical dilemmas ranging from individual to community concerns. It is argued that such trials must abide by established ethical principles especially safety, which is mainly enshrined in the principle of non-maleficence. As there is total lack of experience with many of the promising candidate tools (eg genetically modified mosquitoes, entomopathogenic fungi, and biocontrol agents), great caution must be exercised before they are introduced in the field. Since malaria vector trials, especially phase 3 are intrusive and in large populations, individual and community respect is mandatory, and must give great priority to community engagement. It is concluded that new tools must be safe, beneficial, efficacious, effective, and acceptable to large populations in the short and long-term, and that research benefits should be equitably distributed to all who bear the brunt of the research burdens. It is further concluded that individual and institutional capacity strengthening should be provided, in order to undertake essential research, carry out scientific and ethical review, and establish competent regulatory frameworks

Microbial symbionts : a resource for the management of insect-related problems

Microorganisms establish with their animal hosts close interactions. They are involved in many aspects of the host life, physiology and evolution, including nutrition, reproduction, immune homeostasis, defence and speciation. Thus, the manipulation and the exploitation the microbiota could result in important practical applications for the development of strategies for the management of insect-related problems. This approach, defined as Microbial Resource Management (MRM), has been applied successfully in various environments and ecosystems, as wastewater treatments, prebiotics in humans, anaerobic digestion and so on. MRM foresees the proper management of the microbial resource present in a given ecosystem in order to solve practical problems through the use of microorganisms. In this review we present an interesting field for application for MRM concept, i.e. the microbial communities associated with arthropods and nematodes. Several examples related to this field of applications are presented. Insect microbiota can be manipulated: (i) to control insect pests for agriculture; (ii) to control pathogens transmitted by insects to humans, animals and plants; (iii) to protect beneficial insects from diseases and stresses. Besides, we prospect further studies aimed to verify, improve and apply MRM by using the insectsymbiont ecosystem as a model

Stigmergic epistemology, stigmergic cognition

To know is to cognize, to cognize is to be a culturally bounded, rationality-bounded and environmentally located agent. Knowledge and cognition are thus dual aspects of human sociality. If social epistemology has the formation, acquisition, mediation, transmission and dissemination of knowledge in complex communities of knowers as its subject matter, then its third party character is essentially stigmergic. In its most generic formulation, stigmergy is the phenomenon of indirect communication mediated by modifications of the environment. Extending this notion one might conceive of social stigmergy as the extra-cranial analog of an artificial neural network providing epistemic structure. This paper recommends a stigmergic framework for social epistemology to account for the supposed tension between individual action, wants and beliefs and the social corpora. We also propose that the so-called "extended mind" thesis offers the requisite stigmergic cognitive analog to stigmergic knowledge. Stigmergy as a theory of interaction within complex systems theory is illustrated through an example that runs on a particle swarm optimization algorithm

Plasmodium falciparum (Haemosporodia: Plasmodiidae) and O'nyong-nyong virus development in a transgenic Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) strain

Transgenic Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes have been developed that confer sexual sterility on males that carry a transgene encoding a protein which cuts ribosomal DNA. A relevant risk concern with transgenic mosquitoes is that their capacity to transmit known pathogens could be greater than the unmodified form. In this study, the ability to develop two human pathogens in these transgenic mosquitoes carrying a homing endonuclease which is expressed in the testes was compared with its nontransgenic siblings. Infections were performed with Plasmodium falciparum (Welch) and o'nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) and the results between the transgenic and nontransgenic sibling females were compared. There was no difference observed with ONNV isolate SG650 in intrathoracic infections or the 50% oral infectious dose measured at 14 d postinfection or in mean body titers. Some significant differences were observed for leg titers at the medium and highest doses for those individuals in which virus titer could be detected. No consistent difference was observed between the transgenic and nontransgenic comparator females in their ability to develop P. falciparum NF54 strain parasites. This particular transgene caused no significant effect in the ability of mosquitoes to become infected by these two pathogens in this genetic background. These results are discussed in the context of risk to human health if these transgenic individuals were present in the environment

Assortative Mating in \u3cem\u3eIxodes Scapularis\u3c/em\u3e (Acari: Ixodidae) Ticks? And \u3cem\u3eIxodes Scapularis\u3c/em\u3e Infest Male Deer More Often Than Female Deer at Savannah River Site, (Aiken, SC)

In this study we explored the hypothesis that the mitochondrial genetic diversity observed in Ixodes Scapularis ticks in the Southeastern United States is maintained through assortative mating. The study of 319 couples of ticks collected in copula from deer at the Savannah River Site (Aiken, SC) showed that ticks assigned to mitochondrial (12SrDNA and d-loop genes) phylogenetic monophyletic clades do not chose their mating partner based on genetic similarity or genetic diversity. The genetic composition of couples did not differ significantly from random choice. Our data indicate that if genetic diversity is maintained in this tick population, this cannot be attributed to assortative mating. During this survey of the tick Ixodes scapularis collected from deer at the Savannah River Site (Aiken, SC) deer check stations, it became evident that this tick preferentially feeds on male deer. I. scapularis prevalence rates on male and female deer were compared and revealed that the sex bias was significant (p \u3c 0.0001) and did not depend on deer weight (r2 = 0.143). Data also indicated that tick loads on deer were not directly related to tick density in the vegetation (r2 = 0.082), which is possibly due to the fact that specific sites where deer are killed during hunts do not always correspond to the normal deer range

Scientific Standards and the Regulation of Genetically Modified Insects

Experimental releases of genetically modified (GM) insects are reportedly being evaluated in various countries, including Brazil, the Cayman Islands (United Kingdom), France, Guatemala, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Panama, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, the United States of America, and Vietnam. GM mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) have already been released for field trials into inhabited areas in the Cayman Islands (2009–?), Malaysia (2010–2011), and Brazil (2011–2012). Here, we assess the regulatory process in the first three countries permitting releases (Malaysia, US, and the Cayman Islands) in terms of pre-release transparency and scientific quality. We find that, despite 14 US government–funded field trials over the last 9 years (on a moth pest of cotton), there has been no scientific publication of experimental data, and in only two instances have permit applications been published. The world's first environmental impact statement (EIS) on GM insects, produced by US authorities in 2008, is found to be scientifically deficient on the basis that (1) most consideration of environmental risk is too generic to be scientifically meaningful; (2) it relies on unpublished data to establish central scientific points; and (3) of the approximately 170 scientific publications cited, the endorsement of the majority of novel transgenic approaches is based on just two laboratory studies in only one of the four species covered by the document. We find that it is not possible to determine from documents publically available prior to the start of releases if obvious hazards of the particular GM mosquitoes released in Malaysia, the Cayman Islands, and Brazil received expert examination. Simple regulatory measures are proposed that would build public confidence and stimulate the independent experimental studies that environmental risk assessments require. Finally, a checklist is provided to assist the general public, journalists, and lawmakers in determining, from documents issued by regulators prior to the start of releases, whether permit approval is likely to have a scientifically high quality basi

Elucidating the megadiversity of Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera) with a multi-taxonomic approach

With over 22,500 described and up to 500,000 estimated species, the jewel wasps (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera) are among the most species-rich insect lineages. Their evolutionary success is tightly linked to their parasitoid biology, having evolved to utilize a wide array of different arthropod hosts. Additionally, secondary phytophagy evolved several times within this superfamily. Although new approaches are employed in integrative taxonomic research, progress to decipher the megadiversity of this taxon, including their evolution, is still limited. With this work, the diversity of the superfamily is studied at two evolutionary key points in time. The evolutionary origin of Chalcidoidea is investigated in the Cretaceous and the resulting diversity since then is examined in the present. Different systematic levels will be elucidated with the help of integrative taxonomic methods. In the first chapter, the fossil origins of jewel wasps are addressed, around the middle of the Cretaceous period 110 million years ago. The morphology of a putative early chalcidoid specimen is studied, as it is highly informative for chalcidoid evolution due to its age. Based on those results, its phylogenetic placement is critically examined. The specimen is assumed to be one of the oldest described chalcidoid fossils, Parviformosus wohlrabeae Barling et al., 2013. It is a key fossil because of its age and putative assignment to the polyphyletic family Pteromalidae and could therefore be a valuable voucher for dating modern phylogenies. A precise redescription of the fossil was conducted and its morphology and phylogenetic position was discussed. No synapomorphic characters could be identified, warranting an inclusion in an already established chalcidoid family. In fact, none of the autapomorphies for Chalcidoidea could be recognized, necessitating a revised systematic placement in the Proctotrupomorpha. In the second chapter, several fossils in amber are described that grant insights in the early evolution of Chalcidoidea and the morphological diversity of Cretaceous lineages. Morphological characters are studied to answer the question of plesiomorphic character states in Chalcidoidea, aiding to understand their early evolution. The phylogenetic placement of these fossils is discussed, to provide hypotheses on the diversification of the superfamily, which so far has only few fossil representatives described from this time. Four fossils are made scientifically available that were found in 99 million year old Burmese amber. Those specimens are described in a new, extinct family, the Diversinitidae. This family exhibits a unique combination of plesiomorphic characters, not present in any other chalcidoid taxon, but lacks apomorphic characters. In total, three new genera and three new species are delimited and described. Phylogenetically relevant characters like the fully developed funicular segments, possessing multiporous plate sensilla, or the peg like cerci that improve our understanding of the early evolution of Chalcidoidea, are discussed based on the newly established family. A phylogenetic analysis based on morphological characters was performed. This analysis supported the monophyly of Diversinitidae, but left its exact systematic position within Chalcidoidea open. In the third chapter the focus shifts from the early evolution of Chalcidoidea towards the extant fauna, representing the diversity evolved since the Cretaceous. Exemplary, in the speciose family Pteromalidae the unknown diversity is examined to better understand the undiscovered species richness of parasitoid wasps. DNA barcoding is used to record and help identify previously unknown genera and species in Germany. Compared to the already known pteromalid fauna, 17 genera and 41 species are added as new records for Germany and the males of two species are described anew. The identified DNA barcodes were made available to enable the genetic identification of those species that have a high potential as indicators for nature conservation efforts due to their high host specificity. In the fourth chapter, the pertinent problem of cryptic diversity in Chalcidoidea is investigated. Via an extensive integrative taxonomic approach, the morphological species hypothesis is tested for one of the most abundant pteromalid species in Europe, Spintherus dubius. In this example, the benefit of combining different methods for species discovery and delimitation is highlighted. Genetic analyses of S. dubius reveal discrepancies between the morphological species concept and molecular data, indicating two potential species instead of one. The usage of an advanced morphological method, the multivariate ratio analysis, results in a confirmation of the molecular results, also exposing distinctive morphological characters per taxonomic unit. The examination of the host spectrum through rearing experiments further substantiates these findings, by revealing different host parasitoid affiliations. Altogether, this thesis showed that it is necessary to combine methods and examine different evolutionary points in time, to better understand the diversity of parasitoid lineages. Fossil taxa are important study subjects to examine the character evolution of any taxon, laying the base for phylogenetic research. The study of Diversinitidae highlights the plasticity of character states in Chalcidoidea, also providing evidence for plesiomorphic states. Their encompassing description and the redescription of P. wohlrabeae allow their incorporation into phylogenetic studies, to serve as solid anchor points in dating lineages and morphological evolution on the way towards extant diversity. Examining the extant fauna of Pteromalidae revealed the amount of diversity of species, for which the biology is often unknown. It is shown that molecular methods aid in the discovery of this diversity, opening possibilities for further research. It is affirmed that hidden diversity is even pertinent in abundant, well known species, with S. dubius being an example of cryptic diversity unveiled by integrative taxonomy.Mit über 22.500 beschriebenen und bis zu 500.000 geschätzten Arten sind die Erzwespen (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) eine der artenreichsten Gruppen der Insekten. Ihr Erfolg hängt maßgeblich mit ihrer Biologie als Parasitoide zusammen und dem großen Wirtsspektrum, das sie sich innerhalb der Arthropoden im Laufe ihrer Evolution erschlossen haben. Ebenfalls beigetragen hat die Entwicklung zur Phytophagie, die innerhalb der Überfamilie mehrmals stattgefunden hat. Trotz Einsatz neuester genetischer und morphologischer Methoden gelingt es nur sehr langsam diese megadiverse Gruppe mit taxonomischen Methoden zu erschließen und ihre evolutive Vergangenheit, sowie Biologie und Artenreichtum zu entschlüsseln. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die Diversität der Überfamilie an zwei verschiedenen Zeitpunkten ihrer Evolution sowie verschiedene systematische Ebenen mit integrativ taxonomischen Methoden untersucht. Im ersten Kapitel der Arbeit wird der evolutive Ursprung der Erzwespen in der mittleren Kreidezeit vor etwa 110 Millionen Jahren untersucht. Die Morphologie eines evolutiv frühen, beschriebenen Erzwespen-Fossils wird untersucht, da es durch sein hohes Alter einen hohen wissenschaftlichen Wert für die Evolution der Erzwespen hat. Auf den Ergebnissen basierend wird die phylogenetische Stellung des Fossils kritisch untersucht. Parviformosus wohlrabeae ist aufgrund seines Alters und seiner vermeintlichen Zugehörigkeit zur diversen sowie polyphyletischen Familie Pteromalidae (Chalcidoidea) ein Schlüsselfossil für die Erzwespen und könnte daher als Eichmarke für deren morphologische Evolution dienen. Eine präzise morphologische Neubeschreibung des Tieres wurde angefertigt und die Morphologie und phylogenetische Position diskutiert. Es wurden keine Merkmale gefunden, die eine Einordnung in eine der rezenten oder fossilen Familien von Erzwespen erlauben. Des Weiteren konnte keine der für Erzwespen beschriebenen Autapomorphien nachgewiesen werden, was eine neue systematische Einordnung von P. wohlrabeae nötig macht. Im zweiten Kapitel werden für die Evolution von Erzwespen relevante Fossilien aus Bernstein beschrieben, die einen Einblick in die morphologische Gestalt kreidezeitlicher Familien liefern. Die Morphologie wird untersucht um die Frage nach plesiomorphen Merkmalsausprägungen zu beantworten, die dem Verständnis früher Evolution dienen. Die phylogenetische Stellung der Fossilien wird diskutiert, um Hypothesen zur Diversifizierung von Erzwespen zu erlauben, von denen nur wenige Vertreter aus der Kreidezeit bekannt sind. Vier Fossilien werden erschlossen indem sie beschrieben und in einer neuen ausgestorbenen Familie, den Diversinitidae platziert werden. Diese weist zwar ausschließlich plesiomorphe Merkmale auf, ist aber durch die einzigartige Kombination dieser in kein bisher bekanntes Taxon von Erzwespen einzuordnen. Insgesamt wurden drei Gattungen und drei Arten voneinander abgegrenzt und beschrieben. Wichtige ursprüngliche und abgeleitete Merkmale der Erzwespen werden anhand der neuen Familie diskutiert. Eine phylogenetische Analyse, basierend auf morphologischen Merkmalen, wurde durchgeführt. Diese bestätigt die Monophylie der neuen Familie, erlaubt aber keine exakte phylogenetische Einordnung. In Kapitel drei wird der Fokus auf die seit der Kreidezeit entstandene Vielfalt innerhalb der Erzwespen gelegt. Beispielhaft wird an der artenreichen Familie Pteromalidae die unbekannte Diversität untersucht, um die unentdeckte Artenvielfalt parasitoider Wespen besser einordnen zu können. Mit Hilfe von DNS-Barcoding werden die Pteromalidae aus Deutschland genetisch erfasst und die erhaltenen Barcodes genutzt, um Gattungen und Arten zu identifizieren. Verglichen mit der bekannten Fauna Deutschlands konnten so 17 Gattungen und 41 Arten erfasst und die Männchen von zwei dieser Arten beschrieben werden, die bisher der Wissenschaft nicht bekannt waren. Die genetischen Daten und Bestimmungen wurden weltweit verfügbar gemacht um für weitere Diversitätsforschung und im Naturschutz genutzt werden zu können, da die Familie auf Grund ihrer oft hohen Spezialisierung auf ihre Wirte eine Indikatorfunktion einnehmen könnte. Im vierten Kapitel wird das Problem kryptischer Artkomplexe innerhalb der Erzwespen untersucht. Mit einem integrativ taxonomischen Ansatz wird die morphologische Arthypothese einer der wahrscheinlich häufigsten Pteromalidenarten, Spintherus dubius, geprüft. Hier zeigt sich der Vorteil der Kombination multipler Datenquellen zur Artabgrenzung und -erkennung. Die Ergebnisse der genetischen Analyse widersprechen dem morphologischen Artkonzept von S. dubius und deuten auf zwei Arten hin. Die Ergebnisse einer fortschrittlichen morphologischen Methode, der sogenannten multivariaten Verhältnis Analyse, decken sich mit den genetischen Befunden und erlaubt nun auch eine merkmalsbasierte Trennung beider Gruppen. Bei der Untersuchung des Wirtsspektrums wurde auch ein Unterschied auf biologischer Ebene zwischen den beiden Gruppen festgestellt. Zusammengefasst konnte gezeigt werden, dass es nötig ist unterschiedliche Zeitpunkte in der Evolution mit verschiedenen Methoden zu untersuchen, um die Diversität parasitoider Gruppen besser zu verstehen. Anhand von Fossilien kann die Evolution morphologischer Merkmale als Basis phylogenetischer Forschung nachvollzogen werden. Die Untersuchung der Diversinitidae zeigt die Plastizität, die Merkmale innerhalb der Erzwespen einnehmen, sowie teils plesiomorphe Zustände. Deren umfassende Beschreibung, sowie der von P. wohlrabeae, erlaubt nun eine Verwendung in phylogenetischen Studien um als Eichmarken für das Datieren von Abstammungslinien zur heutigen Vielfalt zu dienen. Das Beispiel der Pteromalidae zeigt dabei klar, wie viel unbekannte Artenvielfalt über deren Biologie kaum etwas bekannt ist, noch entdeckt werden kann. Zugleich wurde das Potential zur Erschließung dieser Diversität durch molekulare Methoden gezeigt, bei der selbst in häufigen, verbreiteten Arten durch integrative Taxonomie kryptische Artenvielfalt aufgedeckt werden konnte

Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods

This proceedings contains papers dealing with issues affecting biological control, particularly pertaining to the use of parasitoids and predators as biological control agents. This includes all approaches to biological control: conservation, augmentation, and importation of natural enemy species for the control of arthropod targets, as well as other transversal issues related to its implementation. It has 14 sessions addressing the most relevant and current topics in the field of biological control of arthropods: (i) Accidental introductions of biocontrol agens: positive and negative aspects; (ii) The importance of pre and post release genetics in biological control; (iii) How well do we understand non-target impacts in arthropod biological control; (iv) Regulation and access and benefit sharing policies relevant for classical biological control approaches; (v) The role of native and alien natural enemy diversity in biological control; (vi) Frontiers in forest insect control; (vii) Biocontrol marketplace I; (viii) Weed and arthropod biological control: mutual benefits and challenges; (ix) Maximizing opportunities for biological control in Asia's rapidly changing agro-environments; (x) Biological control based integrated pest management: does it work?; (xi) Exploring the compatibility of arthropod biological control and pesticides: models and data; (xii) Successes and uptake of arthropod biological control in developing countries; (xiii) Socio-economic impacts of biological control; (xiv) Biocontrol marketplace II