Membrane fusion mediated by the influenza virus hemagglutinin

Der Eintritt von Influenza A Viren in Wirtszellen erfolgt anhand des Hämagglutinin (HA) Proteins. Neueste Entwicklungen zielen darauf ab, die fusionsinduzierende Konformations-änderung des HA und damit die Freisetzung des viralen Genoms in die Wirtszelle zu inhibieren. Der Fusionsprozess ist pH-abhängig da nur bei einem niedrigen pH-Wert (~5.0-6.0) die Protonierung bestimmter Reste innerhalb des HA eine Konformationsänderung, und somit die Membranfusion, auslöst. Die Identifizierung von konservierten, titrierbaren Resten und die Aufklärung der Strukturveränderungen im HA ermöglichen eine gezielte Entwicklung neuer antiviraler Medikamente. In dieser Arbeit wurden bestimmte Histidine im HA mittels umfassender experimenteller und theoretischer Methoden als potentielle pH-Sensoren untersucht. Dabei konnte das Histidin an Position 184 als wichtiger Schalter der pH-induzierten Konformationsänderung identifiziert werden. Außerdem bewirkte der Austausch des geladenen Rests an Position 216 in der Nähe des His184 eine Veränderung der pH-Abhängigkeit des H5 HA aufgrund der Beeinflussung des pKa-Werts des His184. Da die Mutation R216E im HA des hochpathogenen H5N1 Virus in allen Isolaten während der Vogelvirenseuche im Jahr 2003/04 detektiert wurde, deutet das Ergebnis daraufhin, dass diese Mutation zur Entstehung des hochvirulenten Vogelvirus und dessen Adaptierung an den Menschen beigetragen hat. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde auch der Einfluss der pH-Abhängigkeit des HA auf die Fusion und Infektiosität von Viren in lebenden Zellen getestet. Eine destabilisierende Mutation im HA eines rekombinanten WSN-H3 Virus reduzierte dessen Infektions- und Replikationseffizienz in MDCK-Zellen, was auf den endosomalen pH-Wert dieser Zellen zurückgeführt werden konnte. Die Messung der Virus-Endosom-Fusionskinetik in lebenden Zellen machte außerdem die Bedeutung der pH-Abhängigkeit des HA für den Zeitpunkt der Membranfusion und dessen Einfluss auf die Effizienz der Virusinfektion deutlich.The entry of influenza A virus into host cells is established by the hemagglutinin (HA) protein. New antiviral strategies aim to inhibit the fusion inducing conformational change of HA and thereby liberation of the viral genome into the cell. This process is strictly pH dependent since the conformational change of HA initiating the fusion of membranes only occurs upon protonation of yet unknown residues within HA at low pH (~5.0-6.0). The identification of conserved titrable residues and better understanding of the sequential structural rearrangements within HA may facilitate the development of new broad-spectrum antivirals. In the present work His184 and His110 were characterized as potential pH sensors by a comprehensive mutational and computational analysis. The results suggest that His184, but not His110, is an important regulator of HA conformational change at low pH. Furthermore, an exchange of charge at position 216 in vicinity to His184 was shown to alter the pH dependence of conformational change and of fusion in correlation to the known pKa dependence of histidines on neighboring residues. The result advocates that the mutation R216E, which emerged in the highly pathogenic H5 HA in 2003-2004, contributed to an altered acid stability of H5 HA via its effect on His184 and thus to the adaptation of avian H5N1 viruses to the human host. Therefore, the role of an altered acid stability of HA for viral fusion and infectivity in living cells was assessed. Recombinant viruses containing a destabilizing mutation in the HA protein were found to have a reduced infectivity and replication efficiency in MDCK cells compared to the respective wild type. Studying virus-endosome fusion kinetics in these cells we could resolve a significant difference in the timing of fusion induction suggesting that the time-point of fusion is a critical determinant of viral infection efficiency which depends on the endosomal acidification as well as on the acid stability of HA

Glycans as receptors for influenza pathogenesis

Influenza A viruses, members of the Orthomyxoviridae family, are responsible for annual seasonal influenza epidemics and occasional global pandemics. The binding of viral coat glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) to sialylated glycan receptors on host epithelial cells is the critical initial step in the infection and transmission of these viruses. Scientists believe that a switch in the binding specificity of HA from Neu5Acα2-3Gal linked (α2-3) to Neu5Acα2-6Gal linked (α2-6) glycans is essential for the crossover of the viruses from avian to human hosts. However, studies have shown that the classification of glycan binding preference of HA based on sialic acid linkage alone is insufficient to establish a correlation between receptor specificity of HA and the efficient transmission of influenza A viruses. A recent study reported extensive diversity in the structure and composition of α2-6 glycans (which goes beyond the sialic acid linkage) in human upper respiratory epithelia and identified different glycan structural topologies. Biochemical examination of the multivalent HA binding to these diverse sialylated glycan structures also demonstrated that high affinity binding of HA to α2-6 glycans with a characteristic umbrella-like structural topology is critical for efficient human adaptation and human-human transmission of influenza A viruses. This review summarizes studies which suggest a new paradigm for understanding the role of the structure of sialylated glycan receptors in influenza virus pathogenesis.National Institute of General Medical Sciences (U.S.) (Glue Grant U54 GM62116)National Institutes of Health (U.S.) (Grant GM57073)Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technolog

Evasion of influenza A viruses from innate and adaptive immune responses

The influenza A virus is one of the leading causes of respiratory tract infections in humans. Upon infection with an influenza A virus, both innate and adaptive immune responses are induced. Here we discuss various strategies used by influenza A viruses to evade innate immune responses and recognition by components of the humoral and cellular immune response, which consequently may result in reduced clearing of the virus and virus-infected cells. Finally, we discuss how the current knowledge about immune evasion can be used to improve influenza A vaccination strategies

Polymerase mutations promoting adaptation of avian influenza virus of subtype H9N2 to mammals

Transmission of influenza viruses from aquatic birds to mammals is promoted by the adaptation of the viral proteins to the new host. This includes the PB2 subunit of the viral polymerase complex. This protein has been described as an important host range factor, able to modulate the virulence of influenza viruses. Several adaptive mutations in the PB2 subunit of various influenza-A subtypes have been described, such as D253N, Q591K, E627K, D701N, S714I and S714R. H9N2 influenza viruses are endemic in poultry in Asia and other parts of the world. Moreover these viruses have been occasionally transmitted to humans and are often involved in the generation of viruses causing zoonotic infections in humans by providing internal genes. H9N2 viruses have therefore the potential to cause a pandemic. This study was undertaken to analyse the role of the PB2 subunit in the adaptation of avian influenza virus of subtype H9N2 to mammals. In the first part of the thesis, the results demonstrated that PB2 mutations D253N, E627K, D701N, S714I and S714R increase the H9N2 polymerase activity in mammalian cells. Furthermore, mutations E627K, D701N and S714I/R also enhance viral growth in mammalian cells. Pathogenicity studies indicated that combination of mutations E627K-D701N-S714R increase the lethality of H9N2 virus in mice. The effects of the adaptive mutations have then been compared in H9N2, H1N1pdm09 and H7N7 viruses. The results have shown that the enhancement of the polymerase activity by the adaptive mutations is higher in the phylogenetically related H9N2 and H7N9 than in the non-related H7N7 and H1N1pdm09 viruses. In addition, analysis of heterologous polymerase complexes composed of H9N2, H1N1pdm09, H7N7, and H7N9 subunits provides further evidence for the concept that this enhancing effect is a specific trait of H9N2-PB2 without significant contribution of PA and PB1. From these observations, it can be concluded that the PB2 subunit of the H9N2 viruses is characterised by a particularly high adaptability to mammalian cells. In the second part of the thesis, the mechanisms by which E627K and D701N promote adaptation to a mammalian host were analysed. The results demonstrated that viruses bearing the avian signature 627E in PB2 are sensitive to RIG-I activation. This sensitivity is mediated by the destabilisation of the nucleocapsid by RIG-I, exposing thereby the double-stranded RNA required for RIG-I activation. In contrast viruses containing mutation E627K interfere with RIG-I activation, by stabilizing the association of the polymerase complex to the nucleocapsid. These observations indicate that PB2 mutation E627K modulates the inhibition of virus replication mediated by RIG-I. Furthermore, the data showed that mutation D701N promotes not only the nuclear import of newly synthesized PB2 protein, but also the nuclear import of PB2 bound to the incoming vRNPs

Host adaptation and transmission of influenza A viruses in mammals

A wide range of influenza A viruses of pigs and birds have infected humans in the last decade, sometimes with severe clinical consequences. Each of these so-called zoonotic infections provides an opportunity for virus adaptation to the new host. Fortunately, most of these human infections do not yield viruses with the ability of sustained human-to-human transmission. However, animal influenza viruses have acquired the ability of sustained transmission between humans to cause pandemics on rare occasions in the past, and therefore, influenza virus zoonoses continue to represent threats to public health. Numerous recent studies have shed new light on the mechanisms of adaptation and transmission of avian and swine influenza A viruses in mammals. In particular, several studies provided insights into the genetic and phenotypic traits of

The Epitope and Neutralization Mechanism of AVFluIgG01, a Broad-Reactive Human Monoclonal Antibody against H5N1 Influenza Virus

The continued spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus underscores the importance of effective antiviral approaches. AVFluIgG01 is a potent and broad-reactive H5N1-neutralizing human monoclonal antibody (mAb) showing great potential for use either for therapeutic purposes or as a basis of vaccine development, but its antigenic epitope and neutralization mechanism have not been finely characterized. In this study, we first demonstrated that AVFluIgG01 targets a novel conformation-dependent epitope in the globular head region of H5N1 hemagglutinin (HA). By selecting mimotopes from a random peptide library in combination with computational algorithms and site-directed mutagenesis, the epitope was mapped to three conserved discontinuous sites (I-III) that are located closely at the three-dimensional structure of HA. Further, we found that this HA1-specific human mAb can efficiently block both virus-receptor binding and post-attachment steps, while its Fab fragment exerts the post-attachment inhibition only. Consistently, AVFluIgG01 could inhibit HA-mediated cell-cell membrane fusion at a dose-dependent manner and block the acquisition of pH-induced protease sensitivity. These results suggest a neutralization mechanism of AVFluIgG01 by simultaneously blocking viral attachment to the receptors on host cells and interfering with HA conformational rearrangements associated with membrane fusion. The presented data provide critical information for developing novel antiviral therapeutics and vaccines against HPAI H5N1 virus