Critique donné(e), critique prostitué(e) au XIXe siècle

L’article classique de Georg Lukàcs sur Illusions perdues (1935) a fixé l’image d’un critique littéraire « exploité prostitué » par force de la marchandisation capitaliste de la littérature. Lukàcs reconnaît par là l’appartenance du critique à la chaîne de production du livre et donc son rôle de médiateur de l’oeuvre littéraire. Mais il méconnaît une partie essentielle de la relation critique telle qu’elle apparaît autour de 1830 : les louanges se donnent aussi souvent qu’elles se vendent, soit dans l’espoir plus ou moins conscient d’un échange de bons procédés entre écrivains-journalistes, soit par esprit de « camaraderie littéraire ». Cet article se penche sur l’ambivalence, à l’époque romantique, des représentations du critique littéraire, que l’on voit verser tantôt du côté de la vénalité, tantôt du côté du don de soi et de son texte.Georg Lukàcs’ classic utterance on Lost Illusions (1935) forever cast literary critics as “prostitutes exploited” by the capitalist merchandising of literature. In so doing, and while acknowledging both the critic’s place in the production cycle of books and his role as mediator of a given literary oeuvre, Lukàcs nonetheless failed to grasp a key component of a critic’s role in the 1830s. Back then, laudatory comments were freely bestowed just as easily as they could be bought, whether as an expression of literary camaraderie or as part of a more or less implied exchange of favours between journalist-writers. This article will look at the romantic era’s ambivalence in the depiction of literary critics, sometimes venal, sometimes selfless

Le Journal des Goncourt en 1857 : le règne paradoxal de la Bohème

À l’inverse de leurs prédécesseurs, qui n’y voyaient qu’accident de l’histoire, les sociologues Pierre Bourdieu et Nathalie Heinich ont accordé une importance majeure à la Bohème littéraire et artistique dans le processus de constitution d’un champ littéraire autonome, pour l’un, et d’un régime de singularité, pour l’autre. Mais n’ont-ils pas accrédité, ce faisant, une représentation de la Bohème qui prévalait déjà dans les histoires littéraires les plus traditionnelles ? Sous la plume des frères Goncourt, en 1857, on découvre une Bohème à la fonction et à l’aspect tout différents : la Bohème apparaît ici munie d’un pouvoir dévorant (et non plus sympathiquement marginale), vénale (et non plus amoureuse de sa pauvreté), bref symptomatique d’un mal littéraire moderne. Analysant ce portrait en regard de la posture des frères Goncourt et de leur idéologie d’une littérature pure, cet article interroge, au-delà, le statut des prises de position des acteurs en tant que documents sociologiques.Contrary to their predecessors, who saw it as adecdotal history, sociologists Pierre Bourdieu and Nathalie Heinich attribute a major importance to literary and artistic Bohemia in the constitution of (for Bourdieu) an autonomous literary field, and (for Heinich) a regime of singularity. But are they not, in doing so, drawing on a representation of Bohemia that was already prevalent in the most traditional literary histories ? In the writings of the Goncourt brothers in 1857 we discover a Bohemia that is completely different in function and in aspect : Bohemia appears here endowed with an all-consuming power (and is not more sympathetically marginal), venal (and not more in love with poverty)—in short, symptomatic of a modern literary malaise. Analyzing this portrait from the position of the Goncourt brothers and of their ideology of a pure literature, this article also examines how positions taken by actors can be considered as sociological documents

Le cénacle à l’épreuve du roman

Les auteurs proposent de confronter deux oeuvres et deux modes de textualisation du cénacle, considéré comme la forme typique de sociabilité littéraire au xixe siècle. Il s’agit d’abord du « Cénacle de la rue des Quatre-Vents » d’Un grand homme de province à Paris (1839), seconde partie d’Illusions perdues de Balzac. On y étudiera le rôle archétypal que Balzac accorde à ce cénacle porté par les valeurs du Travail et de la Patience, tant face à la littérature facile et au journalisme prostitué, représentés par le dîner orgiaque, que face aux cénacles romantiques fustigés sans cesse depuis 1829 par les journalistes, dont Balzac lui-même. On comparera cette première représentation cénaculaire avec celle que Camille Mauclair donne dans Le soleil des morts (1898), pour montrer qu’à l’inverse de ce qui se produit dans Illusions perdues, le cénacle est entraîné dans le mouvement d’altération générale du monde littéraire : le mythe du « cénacle idéal » vole en éclats, les valeurs cénaculaires font faillite, remplacées par celles que revendiquent les anarchistes (Énergie, Vitesse, Destruction). Entre ces deux romans-repères, publiés à soixante ans d’intervalle, le mythe platonicien de la Littérature, inaltérable et inviolable, réfugiée dans le « ciel des Idées » et symbolisée par le Cénacle, s’est effondré. Dans cette confrontation peuvent se lire l’évolution des imaginaires d’écrivains et la reconfiguration du champ littéraire.The authors’ aim is to compare two works and two modes of textualization of the cenacle, considered the typical form of literary sociability in the nineteenth century. The first is the “Rue des Quatre-Vents cenacle” of Un grand homme de province à Paris [A Distinguished Provincial at Paris] (1839), part 2 of Balzac’s Illusions perdues [Lost Illusions]. We examine the archetypal role Balzac accords this cenacle, inspired by the values of Work and Patience, relative to superficial literature and debased journalism—represented by the orgiastic supper—and the romantic cenacles ceaselessly since 1829 denounced by journalists, including Balzac himself. This first cenacular representation is compared with that of Camille Mauclair in Le soleil des morts [The Sun of the Dead] (1898) to demonstrate that, unlike in Illusions perdues, the cenacle here is swept into a movement producing a general alteration of the literary world: the myth of the “ideal cenacle” is shattered and cenacular values have become bankrupt and replaced by anarchic values (Energy, Speed, Destruction). Between these two landmark novels, published sixty years apart, the Platonic myth of Literature, inalterable and inviolable, finding refuge in the “heaven of Ideas” and symbolized by the Cenacle, collapsed. A comparison of these novels reveals the evolution of writers’ imaginations based on a reconfigured literary field

Aporte do iodo nas Regiões Autónomas da Madeira e dos Açores

RESUMOObjetivoNo presente trabalho pretendeu-se avaliar o aporte do iodo nas Regiões Autónomas da Madeira e dos Açores, estudando duas populações, crianças das escolas e grávidas das maternidades, a fim de solicitar às Entidades de Saúde responsáveis eventuais medidas corretivas a tomar.IntroduçãoO iodo é o elemento indispensável para a síntese das hormonas tiroideias. A sua carência, ainda que moderada, tal como tem sido descrita em diversos países europeus, se manifestada no decurso da gestação, pode ter consequências nefastas no desenvolvimento neurocognitivo das crianças. Nas Regiões Autónomas da Madeira e dos Açores não há dados recentes sobre o aporte do iodo, pelo que foi decido estender os estudos recentemente efetuados em crianças e grávidas do Continente a estas Regiões.População e métodosAvaliou-se o aporte do iodo em 987 crianças de ambos os sexos, com idades compreendidas entre 6 e 12 anos, sendo 311 provenientes de escolas da Madeira e 676 de escolas dos Açores. Foi determinado o aporte do iodo em 566 grávidas, 196 do Hospital do Funchal e 370 dos Hospitais de Ponta Delgada e da Horta. O aporte do iodo foi avaliado pela sua eliminação urinária, utilizando um método colorimétrico.Resultados: Crianças das escolasNa Madeira a mediana das iodúrias foi de 81,3 μg/L, sendo a percentagem de crianças com um aporte iodado insuficiente (< 100 μg/L) de 68% e com níveis < 50 μg/L de 19%. Nos Açores, a mediana foi de 72,7 μg/L, com 78% das crianças a apresentarem iodúrias inadequados e 26% com níveis inferiores a 50 μg/L. Na Madeira, as iodúrias mais baixas correspondem a Concelhos do norte da Ilha; nos Açores as iodúrias mais satisfatórias foram obtidas nas ilhas de Santa Maria e Graciosa. Comparados com os dados observados no Continente, os obtidos nas regiões Autónomas traduzem um aporte do iodo significativamente menor. Grávidas: Na Madeira, a mediana das iodúrias foi de 69,5 μg/L, com 92% das grávidas a apresentarem níveis inadequados (< 150 μg/L) e 34% com iodúrias < 50 μg/L. Nos Açores, a mediana das iodúrias foi de 46,2 μg/L, sendo a percentagem de grávidas com iodúrias insuficientes (< 150 μg/L) de 99% e iodúrias < 50 μg/L de 56%. As iodúrias obtidas nas Regiões Autónomas são significativamente inferiores às obtidas no Continente.DiscussãoOs dados obtidos nas duas populações das Regiões Autónomas são indicativos dum deficiente aporte do iodo tanto nas crianças (mediana de 81,3 μg/L na Madeira e 72,7 μg/L nos Açores) como nas grávidas (medianas de 69,5 μg/L na Madeira e 46,2 μg/L nos Açores). A carência iodada é significativamente maior nos Açores. O deficiente aporte do iodo é, como seria de esperar, mais intenso na população de gestantes, tendo em conta as maiores necessidades de iodo neste período da vida. Comparados com os dados recentemente obtidos no Continente, verifica-se que a carência iodada é muito maior nas Regiões Autónomas, sobretudo nos Açores. Comparando os dados atuais com os obtidos na população escolar da Ilha Açoriana de São Miguel, na década de 80, verifica-se uma melhoria do aporte do iodo que se pode atribuir à chamada profilaxia silenciosa.ConclusõesO estudo do aporte do iodo, nas crianças das escolas e nas grávidas das Regiões Autónomas, põe em evidência uma nítida carência de iodo, nas duas populações e nas duas regiões, mais marcada nos Açores. Todas as iodúrias observadas são significativamente inferiores às verificadas no Continente. Na ilha de São Miguel, onde foi possível comparar as iodúrias atuais com as da década de 80, observa-se uma apreciável melhoria no aporte iodado nas crianças. Tendo em conta o potencial efeito nocivo da carência iodada, nomeadamente durante a gravidez, no desenvolvimento neurocognitivo das crianças, torna-se indispensável proceder nas duas Regiões Autónomas e com caráter urgente, à suplementação iodada nas grávidas e à profilaxia iodada através a iodização do sal em toda a população.ABSTRACTObjectiveThe present study was aimed to evaluate iodine intake in the Autonomous Regions of Madeira and Azores, in two populations – school children and pregnant women – in order to inform Health Authorities about eventual corrective measures to undertake.IntroductionIodine is the key element for thyroid hormone synthesis. Its inadequate intake, namely in pregnancy, even moderate as has been observed in several European Countries, may have potential deleterious effects in children' neurocognitive development. In Madeira and Azores there are no recent data on iodine intake. In this context it was decided to extend a recent study on iodine intake, performed in Continental Portugal, to these Regions.Population and methodsUrinary iodine of 987 children, 6–12 years of age and from both genders were studied; 311 were from schools of Madeira and 676 from schools of Azores. Iodine intake of 566 pregnant women, aged 17–46 years, was evaluated; 196 were from Funchal Hospital (Madeira) and 370 from the Hospitals of Ponta Delgada and Horta. Iodine intake was evaluated trough its urinary elimination, using a colorimetric method.Results: SchoolchildrenIn Madeira the median urinary iodine (UI) was 81.3 μg/L; the percentage of children with an inadequate UI (<100 μg/L) was 68% and with UI <50 μg/L was 19%. In Azores median UI was 72.7 μg/L, with 78% of children showing inadequate iodine intake and 26% with levels lower than 50 μg/L. In Madeira the lowest urinary iodine was observed in the northern departments of the island. In Azores the higher UI was observed in the islands of Santa Maria and Graciosa. Iodine intake from both the Autonomous Regions were significantly lower than those from Continental Portugal. Pregnant women: In Madeira, median UI was 69.5 μg/L, with 92% of pregnant women showing inadequate urinary iodine (<150 μg/L) and 34% with UI<50 μg/L. In Azores, median UI was 46.2 μg/L; the percentage of pregnant women with inadequate UI (<150 μg/L) was 99% and the percentage of UI<50 μg/L was 56%. Urinary iodine from pregnant women of Madeira and Azores were significantly lower than those from Continental Portugal.DiscussionThe present data point to an inadequate iodine intake in school children (median UI from Madeira 81.3 μg/L; from Azores 72.7 μg/L) and pregnant women (median UI from Madeira 69.5 μg/L; from Azores 46.2 μg/L) in the Portuguese Autonomous Regions of Madeira and Azores. Iodine intake was significantly lower in both populations from Azores. The lower urinary iodine observed in pregnant women is justified by the known increased iodine needs in this period of life. In the Island of S. Miguel, the comparison of the present data with those from schoolchildren obtained in the decade of 80, show a significant increase in iodine intake which is attributed to silent prophylaxis.Conclusions:The study on iodine intake in schoolchildren and pregnant women from the Autonomous Regions of Madeira and Azores points out to relevant inadequate iodine ingestion in both populations from both regions, more important in pregnant women. All evaluated urinary iodine determinations were lower than those observed in the Continent. In the Island of S. Miguel, the comparison of the present UI with those obtained in schoolchildren in the years 80, show a relevant but not sufficient improvement in iodine intake. Taking into account the potential deleterious effects of inadequate iodine intake, namely during pregnancy, in children' neurocognitive development, it is urgent to implement in Madeira and Azores, iodine supplementation in pregnant women and iodine prophylaxis trough salt iodization in the whole population

Les modèles de la communication dans les études littéraires

Cet article porte sur les usages de la métaphore du circuit électrique pour décrire la communication humaine, en particulier dans les études littéraires. Après un panorama historique de ces usages en sémiotique structurale (R. Jakobson), en histoire du livre (R. Darnton) et en sociologie de la littérature (R. Escarpit, H. Becker, P. Bourdieu) l’article se penche sur les recherches qui ont porté sur l’un ou l’autre pôle du circuit de la communication littéraire (l’auteur, le lecteur). Est enfin proposée une perspective décloisonnée, consciente des apports et des limites du modèle communicationnel

Sociocritique et médiations

Tras convertirse en centrales en la sociología del arte y la música, los conceptos de mediación y mediadores han recibido poco eco en el campo literario. A pesar de la apertura de algunos teóricos de la crítica social (Duchet, Cros, Viala), estas ideas han tenido un tiempo inactivo tanto entre sociólogos de la literatura —fuera de su atención a las mediaciones institucionales (precio, academias, salones)— como entre sociocríticos —más preocupados por las tendencias de lo «social» o «discurso» en la literatura. Este artículo aprovechará la aproximación entre la crítica social y los enfoques relacionados (análisis del discurso, la sociología de la literatura, el estudio de los mitos y del autor, la historia cultural, etc.) para poner en cuestión las uniones entre lo individual y lo colectivo en el campo literario. Su objetivo será comprender mejor conceptualmente las mediaciones, situándose en la triangulación entre el texto, las configuraciones discursivas y la configuración socio-histórica. A través del examen de las mediaciones del discurso, de las instituciones o el imaginario social, se esboza un programa de investigación cuyo objetivo final es reintegrar a la crítica social en una perspectiva interdisciplinaria. ¿La situación entre quienes hacen explícitas las mediaciones no está en el corazón del enfoque sociocrítico?Devenues centrales en sociologie des arts plastiques et de la musique, les notions de médiation et de médiateur ont reçu peu d’échos dans le domaine littéraire. Malgré l’ouverture de certains théoriciens de la sociocritique (Duchet, Cros, Viala), ces notions ont connu une longue déshérence tant parmi les sociologues de la littérature —en dehors de leur attention pour les médiations institutionnelles (prix, académies, salons)— que parmi les sociocriticiens —plutôt préoccupés des tendances lourdes du « social » ou des « discours » en ce qu’ils pèsent sur la littérature. Cet article prendra le parti du rapprochement entre la sociocritique et des approches connexes (analyse du discours, sociologie de la littérature, étude des mythes et des postures d’auteur, histoire culturelle, etc.) et par là du questionnement sur les articulations entre l’individuel et le collectif dans le champ littéraire. Elle visera à mieux cerner conceptuellement les médiations et à les placer au centre d’une entreprise de triangulation entre les textes, les configurations discursives et les configurations socio-historiques. A travers l’examen des médiations des discours, des institutions ou encore de l’imaginaire social, sera ébauché un programme de recherche dont l’objectif ultime est de réintégrer la sociocritique dans une perspective interdisciplinaire. La situation d’entre-deux qu’explicitent les médiations n’est-elle pas en effet au cœur de la démarche sociocritique ?Having become central in the sociology of art and music, the concepts of mediation and mediators have received little echo in the literary field. Despite the opening of some theorists of social criticism (Duchet, Cros, Viala), these notions have had a long dormant among both sociologists —literature outside their attention to the institutional mediations (price, academies, salons)— that among researchers— rather concerned about the trends of the “social” or “discourse” in that they weigh about literature. This communication will take advantage of the rapprochement between social criticism and related approaches (discourse analysis, sociology of literature, study of myths and postures copyright, cultural history, etc..) And thus questioning the joints between individual and the collective in the literary field. It will aim to better understand conceptually mediations and placed in the center of an enterprise of triangulation between text, discursive configurations and settings socio-historical. Through the mediation of speech review, institutions or the social imaginary, will be outlined a research program whose ultimate goal is to reintegrate social criticism in an interdisciplinary perspective. The situation in-between made explicit mediations Is not indeed at the heart of the approach sociocriticism

Maxime Prévost, Alexandre Dumas mythographe et mythologue. L’Aventure extérieure

Dans ce livre, Maxime Prévost fait converger près de deux décennies de recherches, durant lesquelles il n’a cessé de proposer des rencontres aussi inattendues que fécondes  : Jules Verne et Ian Fleming, Thomas de Quincey et Hubert Aquin, Beethoven et Victor Hugo ou encore Philippe Muray et Pierre Bourdieu. Ce livre n’est donc pas tout à fait un livre sur Alexandre Dumas père. Il est cela et plus que cela. Il y est question, en passant ou plus longuement, de Stevenson, de Flaubert, de Goscinny..

Arpenter la vie littéraire

À rebours des élans actuels en faveur du caractère soi-disant disruptif des « humanités numériques », ce dossier porte sur la manière dont les études sociohistoriques sur l’imprimé et le littéraire ont, hier comme aujourd’hui, construit et utilisé des bases de données. Le recours aux bases de données répond à des enjeux techniques et scientifiques décisifs : l’administration de la preuve ou la définition des objets et des problématiques de recherche. En ouvrant sur les coulisses de leur utilisation, ce dossier explore comment les données numériques, devenues essentielles dans bien des travaux, permettent d’arpenter la vie littéraire à différentes périodes (au double sens de la mesurer et de la revisiter, à plus ou moins grands pas). Cette mise au jour se fait selon trois axes de recherche : la conception des bases de données, leurs usages et leur stockage.Against the current trend in favour of the so-called disruptive nature of the “digital humanities,” this dossier focuses on the way past and present specialists of sociohistorical studies on print and literature have designed and used databases. Working with databases responds to crucial challenges, both technical and scientific, about producing evidence or defining the subject and issue of a research. By shedding light on what happens behind the scenes when databases are mobilised, this second thematic dossier of Biens symboliques / Symbolic Goods explores how digital data have become essential in many studies, and have therefore allowed us to survey literary life (in terms of both measuring and re-evaluating it) in different periods. In this perspective, three lines of questioning are proposed in this introduction: how databases are designed; how they are used; and how they are stored.Al contrario de los ímpetus actuales en favor del carácter supuestamente disruptivo de las “humanidades numéricas”, este dossier trata de cómo los estudios socio-históricos sobre el impreso y la literatura, hoy como ayer, han construido y utilizado las bases de datos. El uso de bases de datos responde a cuestiones técnicas y científicas decisivas: la administración de la prueba o la definición de los objetos y de las problemáticas de la investigación. Explorando en los detalles de su utilización, este dossier explora de qué manera los datos numéricos, que se han tornado esenciales para muchos trabajos, permiten recorrer la vida literaria en diferentes periodos (en el doble sentido de medirla y de reconsiderarla, con pasos mas o menos grandes*). Esta actualización se realiza según tres ejes de investigación: la concepción de las bases de datos, sus usos y almacenamiento (*arpenter en francés significa medir la superficie de un terreno y, en sentido figurado, recorrer a grandes y decididos pasos un terreno, calle etc.

Guest Editorial Gestational Hypothyroxinemia and the Beneficial Effects of Early Dietary Iodine Fortification

T he article by Pere Berbel and his Spanish coworkers, published in this issue of Thyroid (1), is fascinating both for the results reported and its clever study design, unique among all other studies published so far on the consequences of iodine deficiency (ID) during pregnancy. Because this study combines data on specific maternal aspects with information on infant neurodevelopment, the present editorial was written jointly by two authors representing these different disciplines. ID is considered to be one of the most frequent causes of preventable mental retardation in children worldwide. Because ID is now recognized as a major public health issue for both maternal and fetal=child health, micronutrient fortification with dietary iodine has been listed as priority number 3 among 30 proposals that constitute major worldwide challenges for which solutions presently exist. These proposals, entitled &apos;&apos;2008 Copenhagen Consensus,&apos;&apos; have been recently established by a panel of eight of the world&apos;s most distinguished economists, including five Nobel laureates (2). The developing brain needs thyroid hormone (TH) throughout pregnancy and TH receptors are present in fetal brain tissue as early as the first trimester. Limited TH secretion does not occur until the second trimester, hypothalamopituitary regulation of TH production not until the third trimester, and full function not until term. Consequently, the fetal brain has to rely on maternal supply of TH and this reliance continues until delivery (3). During the first trimester of pregnancy, maternal thyroxine (T 4 ) is the fetus&apos;s only source of T 4 , whereas by the third trimester mother and fetus both supply T 4 . In fetal brain, the active TH interacting with nuclear receptors is triiodothyronine, derived from maternal T 4 by deiodination. Epidemiological studies have shown that children born to women with mild to moderate hypothyroxinemia exhibit neurological alterations and reduced IQ scores, as well as an increased incidence of attention problems (4). Because of the central role of iodine in TH production, children whose mothers had mild to moderate ID may also be at risk. Indeed, a recent study of children from a region in Sicily with mild to moderate ID reported an association between first trimester ID and reduced IQ as well as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in as many as two thirds of the children (5). However, because most studies were carried out in the context of maternal hypothyroidism (i.e., with elevated serum TSH) or isolated hypothyroxinemia (i.e., with normal serum TSH), and in light of the review by Glinoer and Delange (6) also reporting subtle neuro-psychiatric and intellectual deficits in infants=children born to mothers residing in conditions with mild to moderate ID, further study is warranted (7). In the study by Berbel et al. (1), the authors examined the consequences of a period of isolated hypothyroxinemia in pregnant women from a coastal region in Spain that had mild ID. In this study, mothers of all children were given dietary iodine fortification, but the timing varied. The authors hypothesized that a brief delay in instituting iodine fortification would still lead to disturbed offspring neurodevelopment since the time window was beyond when most neocortical proliferation, which requires TH, had occurred. The study design was quite complicated and deserves close scrutiny to comprehend the findings. In particular, the inclusion criteria involved a number of successive selection=exclusion steps. The original cohort consisted of 345 pregnant women who were stratified into three groups on the basis of their serum free T 4 levels (normal range: 0.71-1.85 ng=dL) and the time when iodine supplementation (with 200 mg KI orally per day) was introduced. In all groups, iodine supplementation continued until end of breast-feeding. Eighteen months after delivery, a neurodevelopmental evaluation was carried out on a restricted group of highly selected infants. Group 1 encompassed 92 women who were enrolled at 4-6 weeks gestation and received iodine supplementation throughout pregnancy until discontinuing breast-feeding. From this group, 64 women (70%) who did not have hypothyroxinemia were first identified and from them, 43 women with a serum free T 4 above the 20th percentile at both 4-6 weeks gestation and term were selected. Next, to establish homogeneity across groups, select children were excluded for presence of specific factors (other than maternal hypothyroxinemia) that might have a negative impact either before or after birth, on subsequent neurodevelopment. The list of exclusion criteria included factors relating to medical history during gestation, at delivery and during lactation; nutritiona