Hagfish predatory behaviour and slime defence mechanism

Hagfishes (Myxinidae), a family of jawless marine pre-vertebrates, hold a unique evolutionary position, sharing a joint ancestor with the entire vertebrate lineage. They are thought to fulfil primarily the ecological niche of scavengers in the deep ocean. However, we present new footage from baited video cameras that captured images of hagfishes actively preying on other fish. Video images also revealed that hagfishes are able to choke their would-be predators with gill-clogging slime. This is the first time that predatory behaviour has been witnessed in this family, and also demonstrates the instantaneous effectiveness of hagfish slime to deter fish predators. These observations suggest that the functional adaptations and ecological role of hagfishes, past and present, might be far more diverse than previously assumed. We propose that the enduring success of this oldest extant family of fishes over 300 million years could largely be due to their unique combination of functional traits

Keratin: Structure, mechanical properties, occurrence in biological organisms, and efforts at bioinspiration

A ubiquitous biological material, keratin represents a group of insoluble, usually high-sulfur content and filament-forming proteins, constituting the bulk of epidermal appendages such as hair, nails, claws, turtle scutes, horns, whale baleen, beaks, and feathers. These keratinous materials are formed by cells filled with keratin and are considered 'dead tissues'. Nevertheless, they are among the toughest biological materials, serving as a wide variety of interesting functions, e.g. scales to armor body, horns to combat aggressors, hagfish slime as defense against predators, nails and claws to increase prehension, hair and fur to protect against the environment. The vivid inspiring examples can offer useful solutions to design new structural and functional materials. Keratins can be classified as α- and β-types. Both show a characteristic filament-matrix structure: 7 nm diameter intermediate filaments for α-keratin, and 3 nm diameter filaments for β-keratin. Both are embedded in an amorphous keratin matrix. The molecular unit of intermediate filaments is a coiled-coil heterodimer and that of β-keratin filament is a pleated sheet. The mechanical response of α-keratin has been extensively studied and shows linear Hookean, yield and post-yield regions, and in some cases, a high reversible elastic deformation. Thus, they can be also be considered 'biopolymers'. On the other hand, β-keratin has not been investigated as comprehensively. Keratinous materials are strain-rate sensitive, and the effect of hydration is significant. Keratinous materials exhibit a complex hierarchical structure: polypeptide chains and filament-matrix structures at the nanoscale, organization of keratinized cells into lamellar, tubular-intertubular, fiber or layered structures at the microscale, and solid, compact sheaths over porous core, sandwich or threads at the macroscale. These produce a wide range of mechanical properties: the Young's modulus ranges from 10 MPa in stratum corneum to about 2.5 GPa in feathers, and the tensile strength varies from 2 MPa in stratum corneum to 530 MPa in dry hagfish slime threads. Therefore, they are able to serve various functions including diffusion barrier, buffering external attack, energy-absorption, impact-resistance, piercing opponents, withstanding repeated stress and aerodynamic forces, and resisting buckling and penetration. A fascinating part of the new frontier of materials study is the development of bioinspired materials and designs. A comprehensive understanding of the biochemistry, structure and mechanical properties of keratins and keratinous materials is of great importance for keratin-based bioinspired materials and designs. Current bioinspired efforts including the manufacturing of quill-inspired aluminum composites, animal horn-inspired SiC composites, and feather-inspired interlayered composites are presented and novel avenues for research are discussed. The first inroads into molecular-based biomimicry are being currently made, and it is hoped that this approach will yield novel biopolymers through recombinant DNA and self-assembly. We also identify areas of research where knowledge development is still needed to elucidate structures and deformation/failure mechanisms

Artificial hard substrata from the Belgian part of the North Sea and their influence on the distributional range of species

A comprehensive list of the macrospecies recorded on ten shipwrecks from the Belgian Part of the North Sea is presented. The historical records of these species in the area are also reviewed to address the potential role of shipwrecks in providing habitats for species typically associated with hard substrata. The current pooled species richness for Belgian shipwrecks consists of 224 spp., including 12 fish species. Among these species, 46 are new records to the Belgian fauna. Species on shipwrecks fulfil a gap in the regional distribution of sessile and mobile epibenthos. The records of several species are interrupted in the Southern Bight of the North Sea, simply because their habitats, natural hard substrata, are rare in this area and poorly studied. Another consequence of the presence of hard substrata offered by artificial sources is the increase in the distributional range of several species. Due to the presence of artificial substrata, a total of 12 southern species presented an extension of their known geographical range to the North

Biodiversity of shipwrecks from the Southern Bight of the North Sea

The seabed of the Southern Bight of the North Sea is mostly composed of sandy soft sediments. Natural hard substrates like pebbles are rare and only occur locally. Lost cargos or shipwrecks lie on the seabed as results of unintentional processes, but because of their inherent structure, they effectively act as artificial reefs deprived of an a priori defined set of functions. On Belgian waters, 231 shipwrecks and other artificial hard structures are dispersed on the continental shelf. Together with the sunken vessels of the neighbouring countries, they create a network of individually isolated hard substrates available for the colonization of the epifauna. The faunal diversity of these shipwrecks has never been studied before. This thesis analyzed the diversity as well as spatial and temporal variation in community structure of ten Belgian shipwreck sites. A total of 224 macrospecies have been identified, with at least 50 species new or rare for the Belgian fauna and Southern North Sea. All shipwrecks are strongly dominated by cnidarians in terms of biomass and by amphipods in terms of abundances. The artificial hard substrate communities isolate strongly from the surrounding soft sediment communities by sharing few species, being dominated by different faunal groups and having a distinct trophic organization. Looking at a cross-shore gradient of sites, three groups of shipwrecks could be determined. Metridium senile, a sea anemone, dominates a species poor community of the coastal sites. Channel water masses influence the offshore sites causing a more stable abiotic environment. The hydrozoan Tubularia indivisa dominates this community. Intermediate sites are also dominated by T. indivisa, but a higher biomass is here observed. It also appears that this T. indivisa is a key species allowing for the settlement of a large set of secondary epibionts. The shipwreck network is further discussed in the context of the regional diversity, dispersal of species and fisheries based applications(BIOL 3)--UCL, 200

The sponge-inhabiting barnacle Acasta spongites (Poli, 1795) (Crustacea, Cirripedia), a first record for the southern North Sea: how artificial habitats may increase the range of a species

barnacle; North Sea; shipwreck; artificial habitat</td

Spatial variability of epifaunal communities from artificial habitat: Shipwrecks in the Southern Bight of the North Sea

We investigated the cover, community structure and abiotic environment of nine shipwrecks lying at increasing distance from the Belgian coast. Results indicated that all shipwrecks were strongly dominated by cnidarians in terms of biomass and by amphipods in terms of abundances. Based on their epifaunal composition, three groups of shipwrecks could be determined. Metridium senile dominated a species poor community of the coastal sites. On the same sites, a Tubularia larynx community with a more species-rich assemblage was also developing. The T. larynx community had a lower biomass value (102 g AFDW m(-2)) and significantly lower species richness compared to the other sites. The coastal sites were characterized by periodic salinity decreases, large seasonal temperature fluctuation, high total suspended matter load and reduced current velocity. Channel water masses influence the offshore sites causing a more stable temperature and salinity environment, less turbid waters and high current speed. Tubularia indivisa dominated this community, with an average biomass of 229 g AFDW m(-2). Intermediate sites were also dominated by T. indivisa, but a higher biomass (424 g AFDW m(-2)) was observed. They showed intermediate results for the abiotic parameters and fast current velocities. Hypotheses for the observed variation in community structures are discussed in the light of the abiotic characterization of the shipwrecks. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Temporal variation of Tubularia indivisa (Cnidaria, Tubulariidae) and associated epizoites on artificial habitat communities in the North Sea

We have analyzed the composition, diversity, density and biomass of a temporal series of samples taken in a Tubularia indivisa community, which dominates a shipwreck in the North Sea waters (N 51 degrees 23',730-E 02 degrees 29',790, 17 nautical miles from the coast, 30 m depth). This shipwreck has structures emerging up to 8 m above the seabed. Water temperature ranged from 4.2 degrees C in March to 20.3 degrees C in August. Salinity showed few variations around 33.9 psu. Bottom tidal currents followed a semi-diurnal cycle and were preferentially NE oriented with 84% of them in the range 0.25-0.75 m s(-1). The mean value for total suspended matter was 6.2 mg l(-1) with large variations on a monthly scale. The species richness of samples varied from 15 in October to 42 in August with a mean value of 33 species. Diversity indices were higher during autumn and winter because of the strong dominance of a few crustacean species during the warmer months. The total density of individuals ranged from 6,500 ind m(-2) in October to 445,800 ind m(-2) in July, most of these individuals belonging to the amphipod species Jassa herdmani. The biomass of the T. indivisa community varied from 9 g AFDW m(-2) in October to 1,106 g AFDW m(-2) in July, with T. indivisa itself constituting between 59 and 82% of the total biomass. The biomass of T. indivisa was positively correlated with species richness and with the density of 23% of the species identified on this community, suggesting that T. indivisa plays an important structural role in this habitat. This was further confirmed by the number of species associated with T. indivisa which was generally superior to 55% of the sorted species. Multivariate analysis indicated strong differences between spring/summer-autumn/winter assemblages mostly but not solely due to the abundance patterns of species. These findings support the conclusion that shipwrecks in Belgian waters allow the development of assemblages dominated by a high biomass of T. indivisa which in turn provides shelter for high densities and biomass of epizoites. These assemblages will further show large monthly variations in densities and composition due to large variation in T. indivisa biomass under an apparent repetitive annual cycle

Dispersal mechanisms in amphipods: a case study of Jassa herdmani (Crustacea, Amphipoda) in the North Sea

Jassa herdmani (Walker 1893), a tube-building amphipod typical of hard substrates, was found in large densities on shipwrecks from the Belgian part of the North Sea, in association with the hydrozoan Tubularia indivisa. In this area, shipwrecks only represent the source of hard substrates in an environment dominated by soft sediments. Nevertheless, the long-distance dispersal of Jassa species has never been investigated. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis of dispersal with currents, by investigating the behaviour of J. herdmani in the laboratory. Size distribution revealed that newly released juveniles (< 1 mm) predominated throughout the year and the lower frequency of the size class 1-3 mm indicates a high mortality or a dispersal at this life stage. Individuals of J. herdmani may initiate actively the transport by tidal or surface currents by swimming to the surface of the water or by floating at the surface, as suggested by behaviours noted in the laboratory. The reaction of the amphipods to a current was investigated in the laboratory. We could not detect any sexual function associated with drifting and there was also no preponderance of a size class in the drifting individuals. When testing different substrates, we observed a significant influence of the substrate type on the frequency at which drifting occurred: J. herdmani showed a better adherence on T. indivisa compared to other substrates. Finally, the amphipod showed also a preference for its host compared to other substrates, which suggests a possible detection mechanism