A spherical shell numerical dynamo benchmark with pseudo vacuum magnetic boundary conditions

It is frequently considered that many planetary magnetic fields originate as a result of convection within planetary cores. Buoyancy forces responsible for driving the convection generate a fluid flow that is able to induce magnetic fields; numerous sophisticated computer codes are able to simulate the dynamic behaviour of such systems. This paper reports the results of a community activity aimed at comparing numerical results of several different types of computer codes that are capable of solving the equations of momentum transfer, magnetic field generation and heat transfer in the setting of a spherical shell, namely a sphere containing an inner core. The electrically conducting fluid is incompressible and rapidly rotating and the forcing of the flow is thermal convection under the Boussinesq approximation. We follow the original specifications and results reported in Harder & Hansen to construct a specific benchmark in which the boundaries of the fluid are taken to be impenetrable, non-slip and isothermal, with the added boundary condition for the magnetic field <b>B</b> that the field must be entirely radial there; this type of boundary condition for <b>B</b> is frequently referred to as ‘pseudo-vacuum’. This latter condition should be compared with the more frequently used insulating boundary condition. This benchmark is so-defined in order that computer codes based on local methods, such as finite element, finite volume or finite differences, can handle the boundary condition with ease. The defined benchmark, governed by specific choices of the Roberts, magnetic Rossby, Rayleigh and Ekman numbers, possesses a simple solution that is steady in an azimuthally drifting frame of reference, thus allowing easy comparison among results. Results from a variety of types of code are reported, including codes that are fully spectral (based on spherical harmonic expansions in angular coordinates and polynomial expansions in radius), mixed spectral and finite difference, finite volume, finite element and also a mixed Fourier-finite element code. There is good agreement among codes

Applications of a finite-volume algorithm for incompressible MHD problems

We present the theory, algorithms and implementation of a parallel finite-volume algorithm for the solution of the incompressible magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equations using unstructured grids that are applicable for a wide variety of geometries. Our method implements a mixed Adams-Bashforth/Crank-Nicolson scheme for the nonlinear terms in the MHD equations and we prove that it is stable independent of the time step. To ensure that the solenoidal condition is met for the magnetic field, we use a method whereby a pseudo-pressure is introduced into the induction equation; since we are concerned with incompressible flows, the resulting Poisson equation for the pseudo-pressure is solved alongside the equivalent Poisson problem for the velocity field. We validate our code in a variety of geometries including periodic boxes, spheres, spherical shells, spheroids and ellipsoids; for the finite geometries we implement the so-called ferromagnetic or pseudo-vacuum boundary conditions appropriate for a surrounding medium with infinite magnetic permeability. This implies that the magnetic field must be purely perpendicular to the boundary. We present a number of comparisons against previous results and against analytical solutions, which verify the code's accuracy. This documents the code's reliability as a prelude to its use in more difficult problems. We finally present a new simple drifting solution for thermal convection in a spherical shell that successfully sustains a magnetic field of simple geometry. By dint of its rapid stabilization from the given initial conditions, we deem it suitable as a benchmark against which other self-consistent dynamo codes can be tested

Full sphere hydrodynamic and dynamo benchmarks

Convection in planetary cores can generate fluid flow and magnetic fields, and a number of sophisticated codes exist to simulate the dynamic behaviour of such systems. We report on the first community activity to compare numerical results of computer codes designed to calculate fluid flow within a whole sphere. The flows are incompressible and rapidly rotating and the forcing of the flow is either due to thermal convection or due to moving boundaries. All problems defined have solutions that allow easy comparison, since they are either steady, slowly drifting or perfectly periodic. The first two benchmarks are defined based on uniform internal heating within the sphere under the Boussinesq approximation with boundary conditions that are uniform in temperature and stress-free for the flow. Benchmark 1 is purely hydrodynamic, and has a drifting solution. Benchmark 2 is a magnetohydrodynamic benchmark that can generate oscillatory, purely periodic, flows and magnetic fields. In contrast, Benchmark 3 is a hydrodynamic rotating bubble benchmark using no slip boundary conditions that has a stationary solution. Results from a variety of types of code are reported, including codes that are fully spectral (based on spherical harmonic expansions in angular coordinates and polynomial expansions in radius), mixed spectral and finite difference, finite volume, finite element and also a mixed Fourier–finite element code. There is good agreement between codes. It is found that in Benchmarks 1 and 2, the approximation of a whole sphere problem by a domain that is a spherical shell (a sphere possessing an inner core) does not represent an adequate approximation to the system, since the results differ from whole sphere results

A spherical shell numerical dynamo benchmark with pseudo-vacuum magnetic boundary conditions

It is frequently considered that many planetary magnetic fields originate as a result of convection within planetary cores. Buoyancy forces responsible for driving the convection generate a fluid flow that is able to induce magnetic fields; numerous sophisticated computer codes are able to simulate the dynamic behaviour of such systems. This paper reports the results of a community activity aimed at comparing numerical results of several different types of computer codes that are capable of solving the equations of momentum transfer, magnetic field generation and heat transfer in the setting of a spherical shell, namely a sphere containing an inner core. The electrically conducting fluid is incompressible and rapidly rotating and the forcing of the flow is thermal convection under the Boussinesq approximation. We follow the original specifications and results reported in Harder & Hansen to construct a specific benchmark in which the boundaries of the fluid are taken to be impenetrable, non-slip and isothermal, with the added boundary condition for the magnetic field B that the field must be entirely radial there; this type of boundary condition for B is frequently referred to as ‘pseudo-vacuum'. This latter condition should be compared with the more frequently used insulating boundary condition. This benchmark is so-defined in order that computer codes based on local methods, such as finite element, finite volume or finite differences, can handle the boundary condition with ease. The defined benchmark, governed by specific choices of the Roberts, magnetic Rossby, Rayleigh and Ekman numbers, possesses a simple solution that is steady in an azimuthally drifting frame of reference, thus allowing easy comparison among results. Results from a variety of types of code are reported, including codes that are fully spectral (based on spherical harmonic expansions in angular coordinates and polynomial expansions in radius), mixed spectral and finite difference, finite volume, finite element and also a mixed Fourier-finite element code. There is good agreement among code

Full sphere hydrodynamic and dynamo benchmarks

Convection in planetary cores can generate fluid flow and magnetic fields, and a number of sophisticated codes exist to simulate the dynamic behaviour of such systems. We report on the first community activity to compare numerical results of computer codes designed to calculate fluid flow within a whole sphere. The flows are incompressible and rapidly rotating and the forcing of the flow is either due to thermal convection or due to moving boundaries. All problems defined have solutions that allow easy comparison, since they are either steady, slowly drifting or perfectly periodic. The first two benchmarks are defined based on uniform internal heating within the sphere under the Boussinesq approximation with boundary conditions that are uniform in temperature and stress-free for the flow. Benchmark 1 is purely hydrodynamic, and has a drifting solution. Benchmark 2 is a magnetohydrodynamic benchmark that can generate oscillatory, purely periodic, flows and magnetic fields. In contrast, Benchmark 3 is a hydrodynamic rotating bubble benchmark using no slip boundary conditions that has a stationary solution. Results from a variety of types of code are reported, including codes that are fully spectral (based on spherical harmonic expansions in angular coordinates and polynomial expansions in radius), mixed spectral and finite difference, finite volume, finite element and also a mixed Fourier-finite element code. There is good agreement between codes. It is found that in Benchmarks 1 and 2, the approximation of a whole sphere problem by a domain that is a spherical shell (a sphere possessing an inner core) does not represent an adequate approximation to the system, since the results differ from whole sphere result

Age-related differences in muscle recruitment and reaction-time performance.

Previously, we showed that prolonged reaction-time (RT) in older persons is related to increased antagonist muscle co-activation, occurring already before movement onset. Here, we studied whether a difference in temporal agonist and antagonist muscle activation exists between young and older persons during an RT-test. We studied Mm. Biceps (antagonist muscle) & Triceps (agonist muscle) Brachii activation time by sEMG in 60 young (26. ±. 3. years) and 64 older (80. ±. 6. years) community-dwelling subjects during a simple point-to-point RT-test (moving a finger using standardized elbow-extension from one pushbutton to another following a visual stimulus). RT was divided in pre-movement-time (PMT, time for stimulus processing) and movement-time (MT, time for motor response completion). Muscle activation time 1) following stimulus onset (PMAT) and 2) before movement onset (MAT) was calculated. PMAT for both muscles was significantly longer for the older subjects compared to the young (258. ±. 53. ms versus 224. ±. 37. ms, p. =. 0.042 for Biceps and 280. ±. 70. ms versus 218. ±. 43. ms for Triceps, p. <. 0.01). Longer agonist muscle PMAT was significantly related to worse PMT and RT in young (respectively r. =. 0.76 & r. =. 0.68, p. <. 0.001) and elderly (respectively r. =. 0.42 & r. =. 0.40, p. =. 0.001). In the older subjects we also found that the antagonist muscle activated significantly earlier than the agonist muscle (-. 22. ±. 55. ms, p. =. 0.003). We conclude that in older persons, besides the previously reported increased antagonist muscle co-activation, the muscle firing sequence is also profoundly altered. This is characterized by a delayed muscle activation following stimulus onset, and a significantly earlier recruitment of the antagonist muscle before movement onset