ENZYMATIC DETERMINATION OF TEPP RESIDUES ON RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS

In 1966 the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, since renamed the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, was considering the use of commercial tetraethylpyrophosphate (TEPP) for spraying problem bird roosts. Although TEPP was known to be a fast degrading organophosphate, the Bureau decided that a determination of TEPP residues on birds sprayed under simulated field conditions would be useful in reaching a decision on possible use of this material. The determination was done with an enzymatic Warburg manometric method for measuring the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), a major cause of neurotoxication. It was found that at simulated roost temperatures of 7·8°C with relative humidity of 57·60%, the AChE inhibition activity of TEPP in red·winged blackbirds diminished rapidly in the first 2 days. However, after 19 days, an indicated 2.2% (2.8% statistically possible) remained as cholinergic inhibition residues that could be hazardous to humans or nontarget species, considerably more than 99% loss in 45.2 hr at 26°C that had been previously reported. This information, among others, was used by the Bureau in deciding not to pursue the use of TEPP in spraying problem bird roosts

EXTENDED USE OF STARLICIDE IN REDUCING BIRD DAMAGE IN SOUTHEASTERN FEEDLOTS

The livestock industry is a major agricultural activity in the Southeast where large numbers of wintering blackbirds and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) consume and con- taminate feed at livestock feeding operations. This study was conducted in Tennessee, where the 1977 cash sales for cattle, hog, and dairy products approximated $579 milion or 42% of sales of all Tennessee farm commodities (Tennessee Crop Reporting Ser- vices 1978). Although no feeding operation damage figures are available, losses to birds at feedlots may be as great or greater than depredations to wheat and corn crops (Stickley et al. 1976, Dolbeer et al. 1978, Dolbeer et al. 1978-79, and Stickley et al. 1979). Besser et al. (1968) calculated the average daily time starlings fed at Colorado feeding operations, and, on the basis of feed consumption by caged birds, estimated that one starling would consume 28.3 g of livestock feed per day. Farmer questionnaire data (Russell 1975) indicated substantial feeding operation losses, but these data were not differentiated into disease versus feed losses or losses by bird species. DeCino et al. (1966) showed that 3-chloro-4-methyl benzamine HCI (the active ingre- dient in Starlicide) was highly toxic to starlings (acute oral LD50 of 3.8 mg/kg), well ac- cepted by the species, generally less toxic to other avian forms, and relatively nontoxic to mammals. They found hawks to be particularly resistant to the chemical, and in- dicated that hazards to hawks from eating Starlicide-affected birds would be low. The compound causes a slow, nonviolent death primarily through uremic poisoning and con- gestion of major organs. Most birds ingesting the chemical die within 8-48 h. The for- mulated product is now registered under the trade name “Starlicide CompleteR” by Ralston Purina Company, St. Louis, Missouri. It consists of 160-180 mg protein-based pellets of which one in 10 contains 1 % of the avicide. Besser et al. (1967) were the first to test this chemical operationally by ground-baiting a two-acre Nevada cattle feeding operation with 10 Ib of 1% Starlicide-treated poultry pellets that reduced a population of 2280 starlings approximately 75 percent within seven days. No secondary hazards were noted. In a similar study Royall et al. (1967) reduced a population of 1800 starlings at a Utah turkey farm by about 93% after four days. West (1968) conducted the only published long-term study of the effectiveness of baiting with Starlicide at a feeding operation. Preroosting birds using a Colorado feedlot were baited in the afternoon 19 times from 23 November to 3 March with pellets broad- cast on the ground once. During this period, the initial 250,000 starling population was reduced 80% by 29 January. The above studies were conducted at western feedlot operations, and, with the ex- ception of the West (1968) study, were of short duration. Further, effectiveness of these studies was determined by the estimated reduction of starling populations at the feeding operations based on area population estimates and bait consumed. This pre- sent study was designed to determine the effectiveness of extended baiting under eastern livestock feeding conditions by evaluating activity of starlings/blackbirds at specific feed troughs or feeding areas. Eastern livestock operations tend to be smaller scale than western operations and more variable in terms of operating conditions

TWO TESTS OF THE AVIAN REPELLENT, METHIOCARB, IN MICHIGAN SWEET CHERRY ORCHARDS

Sweet cherries provide a major source of income to Michigan fruit growers. Annual production in Michigan during the period 1963-1971 averaged 44 million pounds, or 18 percent of the national total (Smith, et al. 1973). Bird damage to Michigan cherries is a major problem. Although no figures are available on the extent of sweet cherry damage, Stone (1973) estimated that in 1972 bird damage to Michigan tart cherries amounted to 17.4 percent of the crop. According to growers we interviewed, damage to black sweet cherries is often more severe than to tart cherries. These growers also report some damage to white sweet cherries but, since whites are harvested before they ripen fully, they are less likely to be damaged than blacks. Because cherries are damaged primarily by species protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, nonlethal means of controlling damage are required. One promising means is a chemical (methiocarb [3,5-dimethyl-4-(methylthio)phenol methylcarbamate = Mesurol]), which has shown good results when used as a nonlethal bird repellent on several crops (Guarino 1972). In 1971, Guarino, et al. (1974) applied methiocarb to half a row of 17 sweet cherry trees and to half a block of 22 tart cherry trees in Michigan. The trees within each treated area were sprayed to drip with a 75-percent methiocarb wettable powder formulation combined with 0.25-percent Dow Latex 512R (now Dow Latex 205) sticker. This sticker was added to improve retention of the chemical on the fruit. One pound active methiocarb per 100 gal. of water was sprayed at the rate of 6.4 gal. per sweet cherry tree (tart cherry trees were sprayed at the rate of 4.1 gal. per tree). Estimates of damage reduction were 80 percent in sweet cherries and 63 percent in tart cherries

LONG-TERM TRIAL OF AN INFLATABLE EFFIGY SCARE DEVICE OR REPELLING CORMORANTS FROM CATFISH PONDS

Growing winter populations of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocoax auritus) over the past decade have caused serious depredation problems for commercial channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) growers in the Mississippi Delta (Stickley and Andrews 1989). Stickley et al. (1992) found that cormorants allowed to feed without hindrance took an average of 5 catfish fingerlings per foraging hour, but at times took as many as 28 fingerlings per hour. Obviously, growers have to repel these birds or suffer heavy losses where the cormorants are feeding on catfish fingerlings and not gizzard shad (Jorosoma Gredianum) as they at times do (Stickley et al. 1992). Motionless scare devices tend to reduce cormorant depredations only temporarily (Feare 1988, Littauer 1990). However, a pop-up inflatable effigy device (Fig. 1) known as “Scarey Man” ($595 available through R. Royal, P.O. Box 108, Midnight, MS 39115)1 proved to be effective in reducing cormorant numbers on catfish ponds in 4 separate tests that ranged in length from 10 to 19 days. Cormorant numbers were reduced 71, 93, 95 and 99%, respectively, from pretreatment levels in these tests conducted in early 1991 in the Mississippi Delta (Stickley, pers. comm.). Success in these short-term tests prompted a longer term trial of Scarey Man. This paper describes such a trial conducted in the Mississippi Delta in early 1992

A FIELD TEST OF METHIOCARB EFFICACY IN REDUCING BIRD DAMAGE TO MICHIGAN BLUEBERRIES

Over 20,000 acres of highbush (cultivated) blueberries are grown in the United States (Johnston et al. 1969). The major producing states are Michigan, New Jersey, North Carolina, Washington, Indiana, and Oregon. Bird damage to blueberries is widespread and sometimes severe (Vaile and Moore, 1968; Pearson, 1958; Hayne and Cardinell, 1949; and Schwartze and Alcorn, 1960). Unfortunately, accurate estimates of less from birds are lacking. Non-lethal methods of controlling bird damage are essential since much of the damage is caused by popular song birds protected by Federal law. Scare devices, including exploders and electronic broadcast alarms, are often used with variable effectiveness. Netting provides the best protection, but the high cost (over $100/acre/year) prohibits its use except for small plantings. The use of low- or nonresidue repellents is a promising approach for non-lethal control of bird damage to agricultural crops. One such chemical (methiocarb [3,5-methyl-4-(Methylthio) phenol methylcarbamate]) has been effective in repelling birds from sprouting corn and ripening sorghum, rice, cherries, and grapes (Guarino, 1972). Promising results have also been achieved in a field test of methiocarb on highbush blueberries in Michigan (Stone et al. 1972) in which a latex sticker was added to the spray solution to increase chemical retention on the fruit. Chemargo Division of Baychem Corporation* is interested in registering methiocarb as an insecticide applied to blueberries without the addition of a sticker. It would be a boon to growers if methiocarb, applied to blueberries as an insecticide, would also significantly reduce bird damage. Thus, the primary objective of our test was to determine the efficacy of methiocarb as a bird repellent when applied under conditions required for its registration as an insecticide (i.e., sans sticker and at a rate of 1 lb. active ingredient per 25 gal. of spray at 50 gal./acre, with a 14-day delay between application and harvest). A secondary objective was to obtain information on the species of birds feeding on blueberries and their behavior

HOPPER BOX TREATMENT OF CORN SEED WITH METHIOCARB FOR PROTECTING SPROUTS FROM BIRDS

Methiocarb [3,5-dimethyl-4-(methylthio)phenol methylcarbamate = R Mesurol1] showed promise as a bird repellent for protecting crops in 1964, when field tests in South Dakota indicated reduced pheasant damage to sprouting corn (West et al., 1969). Stickley and Guarino (1972) then showed marked reduction of blackbird damage to sprouting corn in South Carolina when methiocarb in a water slurry formulation was used as a seed treatment at the 0.5-percent level by weight of seed. Our test, in 1973, was conducted to determine the repellent efficacy of methiocarb on sprouting field corn when the powdered chemical is placed directly in the planter hopper with the corn seed. Ease of chemical application makes this “hopper box” technique preferred by farmers and, hence, the manufacturer

AGRICULTURAL IMPACT OF A WINTER POPULATION OF BLACKBIRDS AND STARLINGS

The major concentration of blackbirds and Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in North America occurs in the southeastern United States where an estimated 350 million Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) , Common Grackles (Quiscalus quiscula) , Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) , and Starlings congregate in winter roosts (Meanley 1971, 1975, 1977). An estimated 75-100 major (containing \u3el million birds) roosts form in the southeastern states each year. Increasing attention is being given to many of these roosts because of nuisance problems, reputed health hazards, and agricultural damage associated with them. Although considerable effort has been directed toward developing methods for reducing roosting populations (Lefebvre and Seubert 1970), field applications of such methods have met with considerable public opposition (Graham 1976). Unfortunately, little effort has been directed to ecological studies of the various roosting species during the winter months. The objectives of this study were: (1) to document food habits, habitat preferences and use, and general feeding and roosting behavior of the various blackbird species and Starlings using a large winter roost; and (2) to undertake a preliminary survey of the impact that this large roosting population has on agriculture within a 40 km foraging radius of the roost

Mapping the human genetic architecture of COVID-19

The genetic make-up of an individual contributes to the susceptibility and response to viral infection. Although environmental, clinical and social factors have a role in the chance of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 and the severity of COVID-191,2, host genetics may also be important. Identifying host-specific genetic factors may reveal biological mechanisms of therapeutic relevance and clarify causal relationships of modifiable environmental risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection and outcomes. We formed a global network of researchers to investigate the role of human genetics in SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 severity. Here we describe the results of three genome-wide association meta-analyses that consist of up to 49,562 patients with COVID-19 from 46 studies across 19 countries. We report 13 genome-wide significant loci that are associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection or severe manifestations of COVID-19. Several of these loci correspond to previously documented associations to lung or autoimmune and inflammatory diseases3,4,5,6,7. They also represent potentially actionable mechanisms in response to infection. Mendelian randomization analyses support a causal role for smoking and body-mass index for severe COVID-19 although not for type II diabetes. The identification of novel host genetic factors associated with COVID-19 was made possible by the community of human genetics researchers coming together to prioritize the sharing of data, results, resources and analytical frameworks. This working model of international collaboration underscores what is possible for future genetic discoveries in emerging pandemics, or indeed for any complex human disease